The role of this spider web log is to furnish end-users of AC-DC Power Supplies too DC-DC Converters amongst useful data regarding production applications, helpful hints, news, comments, too answers to your questions. My focus is on modern switch-mode ability products inwards the attain of i to 3,000-watts.
My destination is to furnish OEM designers, who direct ability products for their end-products, too purchasing agents, who purchase these devices, amongst a valuable resources to assist you lot inwards making decisions involving ability solutions for your adjacent and/or existing products.
I promise you lot uncovering this website too spider web log informative too useful. You are invited to contact me amongst your questions too comments.
Thank You,
Power Guy
Monday, 17 December 2018
Info!! Linear Vs. Switch-Mode Ability Supplies
The Power Guy weblog focuses on modern switch-mode ability supplies as well as converters. However, to provide the newbie (newcomer) amongst some background information, nosotros direct maintain included the next discussion.
Introduction
Linear ability supplies were the mainstay of ability conversion until the slow 1970’s when the starting fourth dimension commercial switch-mode became available. Now apart from really depression ability wall mountain linear ability supplies used for powering consumer items similar jail cellphone phones as well as toys, switch-mode ability supplies are dominant.
What are the differences as well as how produce they work?
Linear ability supplies direct maintain a bulky steel or atomic reveal 26 laminated transformer. It provides a security barrier betwixt for the high voltage air conditioning input as well as the depression voltage DC output. The transformer also reduces as well as the air conditioning input from typically 115V or 230VAC to a much lower voltage, mayhap closed to 30VAC. The lower voltage air conditioning is as well as thence rectified yesteryear 2 or iv diodes as well as smoothed into depression voltage DC yesteryear large electrolytic capacitors. That depression voltage DC is as well as thence regulated into the output voltage yesteryear dropping the divergence inwards voltage across a transistor or IC (the shunt regulator).
Switch-mode supplies are a lot to a greater extent than complicated. The 115V or 230VAC voltage is rectified as well as smoothed yesteryear diodes as well as capacitors resulting inwards a high voltage DC. That DC is as well as thence converted into a safe, depression voltage, high frequency (typically switching at 200kHz to 500kHz) voltage using a much smaller ferrite transformer as well as FETs or transistors. That voltage is as well as thence converted into the DC output voltage of alternative yesteryear some other gear upwards of diodes, capacitors as well as inductors. Corrections to the output voltage due to charge or input changes are achieved yesteryear adjusting the pulse width of the high frequency waveform.
Comparisons of both technologies
Size: - Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 50W linear ability render is typically iii x five x 5.5”, whereas a 50W switch-mode tin hold out equally pocket-size equally iii x five x 1”. That’s a size reduction of 80%.
Weight: - Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 50W linear weighs 4lbs; a corresponding switcher is 0.62 or less. As the ability degree increases, thence does the weight. I personally recollect a two-man elevator needed for a 1000W linear.
Input Voltage Range: - Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 linear has a really express input attain requiring that the transformer taps hold out changed betwixt unlike countries. Normally on the specification yous volition encounter 100/120/220/230/240VAC. This is because when the input voltage drops to a greater extent than than 10%, the DC voltage to the shunt regulator drops equally good depression & the ability render cannot deliver the required output voltage. At input voltages greater than 10%, equally good much voltage is delivered to the regulator resulting inwards over heating. If a slice of equipment is tested inwards the the United States of America as well as shipped to Europe, or fifty-fifty to United Mexican United States of America inwards some cases, the transformer “taps” direct maintain to hold out manually changed. Forget to gear upwards the taps? The ability render volition nearly sure as shooting blow the fuse, or may good hold out damaged.
Most switch-mode supplies tin operate anywhere inwards the footing (85 to 264VAC), from industrial areas inwards Nippon to the outback of Commonwealth of Australia without whatever adjustment. The switch-mode render is also able to withstand pocket-size losses of air conditioning ability inwards the attain of 10-20 milliseconds without affecting the outputs. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 linear volition not. No 1 volition attention if the air conditioning goes missing for 1/100th of a instant when charging your jail cellphone phone, it volition accept 100 of these interruptions to delay the accuse yesteryear 1 second. However, having your computerized equipment shutdown or reboot 100 times a 24-hour interval volition drive a swell bargain of heartburn.
Efficiency: - Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 linear ability render because of its blueprint volition commonly operate at closed to 60% efficiency for 24V outputs, whereas a switch-mode is commonly 80% or more. Efficiency is a mensurate of how much unloosen energy the ability render wastes. This has to hold out removed amongst fans or heatsinks from the system. For a 100W output linear, that waste matter would hold out 67W. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 100W switch-mode would hold out simply 25W. Therefore, 67W – 25W = 42W is the extra ability lost yesteryear a linear supply. Doesn’t audio much, but don’t endeavour touching a 40W lite bulb. If the equipment were running 24 hours a day, as well as thence the extra losses would hold out 367kW hours, at the electrical flow average toll of $0.10 per kW hour; that’s an extra $37 a twelvemonth for a ability render that costs closed to $80.
As a quick note, inwards Europe, they are trying to confine those losses of all ability supplies used yesteryear consumers peculiarly when operating inwards the “Off” fashion (as many products are left plugged inwards 24 hours a day). Imagine 250 1 chiliad m ability supplies eating upwards a duet watts. That equates to the output of a whole ability station.
Introduction
Linear ability supplies were the mainstay of ability conversion until the slow 1970’s when the starting fourth dimension commercial switch-mode became available. Now apart from really depression ability wall mountain linear ability supplies used for powering consumer items similar jail cellphone phones as well as toys, switch-mode ability supplies are dominant.
What are the differences as well as how produce they work?
Linear ability supplies direct maintain a bulky steel or atomic reveal 26 laminated transformer. It provides a security barrier betwixt for the high voltage air conditioning input as well as the depression voltage DC output. The transformer also reduces as well as the air conditioning input from typically 115V or 230VAC to a much lower voltage, mayhap closed to 30VAC. The lower voltage air conditioning is as well as thence rectified yesteryear 2 or iv diodes as well as smoothed into depression voltage DC yesteryear large electrolytic capacitors. That depression voltage DC is as well as thence regulated into the output voltage yesteryear dropping the divergence inwards voltage across a transistor or IC (the shunt regulator).
Switch-mode supplies are a lot to a greater extent than complicated. The 115V or 230VAC voltage is rectified as well as smoothed yesteryear diodes as well as capacitors resulting inwards a high voltage DC. That DC is as well as thence converted into a safe, depression voltage, high frequency (typically switching at 200kHz to 500kHz) voltage using a much smaller ferrite transformer as well as FETs or transistors. That voltage is as well as thence converted into the DC output voltage of alternative yesteryear some other gear upwards of diodes, capacitors as well as inductors. Corrections to the output voltage due to charge or input changes are achieved yesteryear adjusting the pulse width of the high frequency waveform.
Comparisons of both technologies
Size: - Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 50W linear ability render is typically iii x five x 5.5”, whereas a 50W switch-mode tin hold out equally pocket-size equally iii x five x 1”. That’s a size reduction of 80%.
Weight: - Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 50W linear weighs 4lbs; a corresponding switcher is 0.62 or less. As the ability degree increases, thence does the weight. I personally recollect a two-man elevator needed for a 1000W linear.
Input Voltage Range: - Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 linear has a really express input attain requiring that the transformer taps hold out changed betwixt unlike countries. Normally on the specification yous volition encounter 100/120/220/230/240VAC. This is because when the input voltage drops to a greater extent than than 10%, the DC voltage to the shunt regulator drops equally good depression & the ability render cannot deliver the required output voltage. At input voltages greater than 10%, equally good much voltage is delivered to the regulator resulting inwards over heating. If a slice of equipment is tested inwards the the United States of America as well as shipped to Europe, or fifty-fifty to United Mexican United States of America inwards some cases, the transformer “taps” direct maintain to hold out manually changed. Forget to gear upwards the taps? The ability render volition nearly sure as shooting blow the fuse, or may good hold out damaged.
Most switch-mode supplies tin operate anywhere inwards the footing (85 to 264VAC), from industrial areas inwards Nippon to the outback of Commonwealth of Australia without whatever adjustment. The switch-mode render is also able to withstand pocket-size losses of air conditioning ability inwards the attain of 10-20 milliseconds without affecting the outputs. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 linear volition not. No 1 volition attention if the air conditioning goes missing for 1/100th of a instant when charging your jail cellphone phone, it volition accept 100 of these interruptions to delay the accuse yesteryear 1 second. However, having your computerized equipment shutdown or reboot 100 times a 24-hour interval volition drive a swell bargain of heartburn.
Efficiency: - Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 linear ability render because of its blueprint volition commonly operate at closed to 60% efficiency for 24V outputs, whereas a switch-mode is commonly 80% or more. Efficiency is a mensurate of how much unloosen energy the ability render wastes. This has to hold out removed amongst fans or heatsinks from the system. For a 100W output linear, that waste matter would hold out 67W. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 100W switch-mode would hold out simply 25W. Therefore, 67W – 25W = 42W is the extra ability lost yesteryear a linear supply. Doesn’t audio much, but don’t endeavour touching a 40W lite bulb. If the equipment were running 24 hours a day, as well as thence the extra losses would hold out 367kW hours, at the electrical flow average toll of $0.10 per kW hour; that’s an extra $37 a twelvemonth for a ability render that costs closed to $80.
As a quick note, inwards Europe, they are trying to confine those losses of all ability supplies used yesteryear consumers peculiarly when operating inwards the “Off” fashion (as many products are left plugged inwards 24 hours a day). Imagine 250 1 chiliad m ability supplies eating upwards a duet watts. That equates to the output of a whole ability station.
Info!! Types Of Distributed Ability Architectures
Compact DC-DC converters cause got made their way into millions of electronic products as well as systems. The vast bulk of these depend upon an air-conditioning front-end-box to convert the air-conditioning ability beginning into a DC voltage from which the converters operate. In addition, international regulations cause got mandated that these front-end-boxes include Power Factor & Harmonic Correction (PFHC) to maximize the available ability from the ability grid.
Traditional Distributed Power Solutions
Traditional designs that employ distributed ability architecture house DC-DC converters on PC boards really about the point-of-load to maximize arrangement speeds as well as efficiencies. To ability the DC-DC converters, the required AC-DC ability render alongside PFHC is typically mounted somewhere inwards the system’s enclosure, external to the primary pc-board (Figure 1).
This technique is quite reasonable for nearly applications. However, when it comes to equipment that must hold out mounted outdoors as well as occupy the smallest possible volume, at that spot are straightaway improved ability products available.
Improved Power Distribution Methods
Typical medium ability (400-700 watts) PCB mounted DC-DC converters are packaged inwards “full brick” sizes (e.g., 2.4” west x 4.6” L x 0.5” H). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 give away of major manufacturers of DC-DC converters cause got seen the involve for, as well as are straightaway providing air-conditioning input PFHC front end ends inwards brick-formats that are PCB mountable close to the DC-DC converter(s). This has the payoff of placing all the ability components on the same pc-board thence reducing the terminate products size as well as eliminating the ability interconnect wires (Figure 2).
These AC-DC w/PFHC front-end bricks require some external components (capacitors, resistors, etc.), but the infinite required for these items is modest inwards comparing to the elimination of the external “metal boxed air-conditioning front end end”. And, these external components tin hold out robotically inserted during the production of the pc-board. An added produce goodness of utilizing these brick packages is that they tin hold out cooled without fans, past times agency of rut sinks or mutual frigidness plates (e.g., mounting the brick bases against the system’s metallic enclosure).
The Latest AC-DC Power “Brick” Solutions
Power Supply manufacturers cause got non stopped developing smaller as well as ameliorate ability solutions. In fact, inwards recent times the AC/PFHC brick mentioned higher upwards has been merged alongside a DC-DC converter to flat the ultimate ability solution; an AC/PFHC/DC integrated brick. These 2-in-1 devices cause got broad make 85 to 265 VAC inputs, right the ability factor, as well as provide the DC output(s) to the system. All this is accomplished inside the same size constraints of a unmarried “full brick” parcel criterion solely 2.4” west x 4.6” L x 0.5” H, thence providing a 50% board infinite savings (Figure 3).
These integrated 2-in-1 pcb-mounted Power Bricks are ideal for Distributed Power Architectures where POL (Point of Load) Converters are needed. Since the 2-in-1 Power Bricks provide the conversion from air-conditioning to DC (with PFHC) along alongside the needed isolation, as well as the Intermediate Bus Voltage, the role of multiple low-cost, non-isolated POL converters becomes quite practical (Figure 4).
Recent advances inwards components as well as ability pattern technologies cause got made these new
2-in-1 pcb-mount ability bricks possible. In gild to growth ability densities, exceptional Permalloy cores cause got been developed as well as employed inwards the inductors. New substrates as well as innovative transformer winding techniques cause got facilitated constituent acme compressions as well as improved thermal management. And, of course, advances inwards integrated as well as hybrid circuits cause got contributed greatly to this adjacent generation of ability products.
Applications of 2-in-1 AC-DC Power Bricks
These novel “2-in-1” AC-DC ability bricks are ideal for many outdoor as well as indoor applications including:
Lambda, a unit of measurement of TDK Corp., is currently i of the manufacturers of a novel make of integrated “single-brick” AC-DC ability bricks. These “2-in-1” pcb-mount devices are as well as so innovative, they cause got 7 patents pending.
Some of the salient features of Lambda’s single-brick AC-DC PFE Series ability modules include:
Traditional Distributed Power Solutions
Traditional designs that employ distributed ability architecture house DC-DC converters on PC boards really about the point-of-load to maximize arrangement speeds as well as efficiencies. To ability the DC-DC converters, the required AC-DC ability render alongside PFHC is typically mounted somewhere inwards the system’s enclosure, external to the primary pc-board (Figure 1).
This technique is quite reasonable for nearly applications. However, when it comes to equipment that must hold out mounted outdoors as well as occupy the smallest possible volume, at that spot are straightaway improved ability products available.
Improved Power Distribution Methods
Typical medium ability (400-700 watts) PCB mounted DC-DC converters are packaged inwards “full brick” sizes (e.g., 2.4” west x 4.6” L x 0.5” H). Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 give away of major manufacturers of DC-DC converters cause got seen the involve for, as well as are straightaway providing air-conditioning input PFHC front end ends inwards brick-formats that are PCB mountable close to the DC-DC converter(s). This has the payoff of placing all the ability components on the same pc-board thence reducing the terminate products size as well as eliminating the ability interconnect wires (Figure 2).
These AC-DC w/PFHC front-end bricks require some external components (capacitors, resistors, etc.), but the infinite required for these items is modest inwards comparing to the elimination of the external “metal boxed air-conditioning front end end”. And, these external components tin hold out robotically inserted during the production of the pc-board. An added produce goodness of utilizing these brick packages is that they tin hold out cooled without fans, past times agency of rut sinks or mutual frigidness plates (e.g., mounting the brick bases against the system’s metallic enclosure).
The Latest AC-DC Power “Brick” Solutions
Power Supply manufacturers cause got non stopped developing smaller as well as ameliorate ability solutions. In fact, inwards recent times the AC/PFHC brick mentioned higher upwards has been merged alongside a DC-DC converter to flat the ultimate ability solution; an AC/PFHC/DC integrated brick. These 2-in-1 devices cause got broad make 85 to 265 VAC inputs, right the ability factor, as well as provide the DC output(s) to the system. All this is accomplished inside the same size constraints of a unmarried “full brick” parcel criterion solely 2.4” west x 4.6” L x 0.5” H, thence providing a 50% board infinite savings (Figure 3).
These integrated 2-in-1 pcb-mounted Power Bricks are ideal for Distributed Power Architectures where POL (Point of Load) Converters are needed. Since the 2-in-1 Power Bricks provide the conversion from air-conditioning to DC (with PFHC) along alongside the needed isolation, as well as the Intermediate Bus Voltage, the role of multiple low-cost, non-isolated POL converters becomes quite practical (Figure 4).
Recent advances inwards components as well as ability pattern technologies cause got made these new
2-in-1 pcb-mount ability bricks possible. In gild to growth ability densities, exceptional Permalloy cores cause got been developed as well as employed inwards the inductors. New substrates as well as innovative transformer winding techniques cause got facilitated constituent acme compressions as well as improved thermal management. And, of course, advances inwards integrated as well as hybrid circuits cause got contributed greatly to this adjacent generation of ability products.
Applications of 2-in-1 AC-DC Power Bricks
These novel “2-in-1” AC-DC ability bricks are ideal for many outdoor as well as indoor applications including:
- Custom Power Supplies
- PCB Mounted Bulk Power for Multiple DC-DC or POL Converters
- Large LED & Liquid Crystal Displays
- Traffic Information, Control, & Signaling Equipment
- Toll Devices
- Pico & Cell Phone Repeaters
- WiFi, Telecom Sub-Stations
- Underwater Surveying Devices
- Automatic Pass-Reading-Devices for FastTrac Car Lanes
- Oil Pumping & Pipeline Monitoring Devices
- Security Systems
Lambda, a unit of measurement of TDK Corp., is currently i of the manufacturers of a novel make of integrated “single-brick” AC-DC ability bricks. These “2-in-1” pcb-mount devices are as well as so innovative, they cause got 7 patents pending.
Some of the salient features of Lambda’s single-brick AC-DC PFE Series ability modules include:
- Operates from Universal 85 to 265VAC, 47-63Hz Input
- Power Factor & Harmonic Correction Meets EN61000-3-2
- Low Profile, Single-Brick Footprint
- High Power Density (up to 129W/in3) & Efficiency (up to 90%)
- Regulated as well as Isolated DC Outputs alongside Wide Operating Temperatures (at baseplate)
- PFE500-12: 12VDC Output, 400 Watts, -40 to +85°C
- PFE500-28: 24 to 28VDC Output, 500 Watts, -40 to +100°C
- PFE500-48: 48VDC Output, 500 Watts, -40 to +100°C
- PFE700-48: 51VDC Output (semi-regulated), 714 Watts, -40 to +85°C
- ±20% Output Voltage Adjustment Range
- Over Voltage/Current/Temperature Protection
- Approved to UL/CSA/EN60950-1, CE Marked, & RoHS Compliant
- Optional Heatsinks & Evaluation Kits Available
Info!! Faq Modular Ability Supplies
I frequently larn asked the same questions past times our customers concerning Modular Power Supplies that I idea it would move helpful to listing them here:
Q) What is a Modular Power Supply?
A) H5N1 Modular Power Supply is ane that is assembled using a diverseness of pre-built edifice blocks (modules). This gives the client a maximum selection for his voltage, current, signals & example style.
Q) What is the minimum quantity I receive got to buy?
A) At Lambda yous tin purchase equally few equally one. Their modular ability supplies are built using sophisticated manufacturing methods. The bills of materials are automatically generated, fed downwardly to the store flooring together with and thence chop-chop assembled using pre-built assemblies. Stock of the pre-built assemblies is managed past times Kan Ban methods that trigger replenishment orders from the diverse workcells inwards the facility.
Q) Is at that topographic point a laid upward accuse for production?
A) None
Q) How long does it accept to larn all the security approvals?
A) H5N1 expert modular ability render serial has all the security certifications in-place to comprehend all of the potential configurations. Often these include EN61010 (test & measurement) together with EN60601 (medical) certifications.
Q) How presently tin I larn a unit?
A) Because the modular units role pre-built assemblies, lead-time tin move equally brusk equally 48 hours. Several U.S. of A. distributors receive got arrangements amongst ability render manufacturers to produce the assembly. These are frequently called VARs (Value Added Resellers). Lambda has several VARs who tin chop-chop laid upward supplies to your needs.
Q) Are these units expensive?
A) Not really. Prices receive got dropped substantially since 1980 when Lambda commencement introduced modular supplies. It is non unheard of for our customers to move using inwards excess of grand units/year.
Q) Why should I role a modular over a modified measure or custom?
A) As these modular products are sold to a huge release of unlike customers, who are using them over a broad hit of applications, the likelihood of a occupation is minimal. With a custom or modified measure that remove chances goes upward dramatically equally yous volition move the "beta" site.
Q) Can I larn strange output voltages?
A) Yes, many output "modules" characteristic a broad adjustment range, frequently 2:1. Recently, nosotros had a client inquire for v (5) floating 18V outputs together with nosotros were able to run into their needs amongst a modular ability supply.
If yous receive got whatsoever questions regarding Modular Power Supplies, delight permit us know.
Q) What is a Modular Power Supply?
A) H5N1 Modular Power Supply is ane that is assembled using a diverseness of pre-built edifice blocks (modules). This gives the client a maximum selection for his voltage, current, signals & example style.
Q) What is the minimum quantity I receive got to buy?
A) At Lambda yous tin purchase equally few equally one. Their modular ability supplies are built using sophisticated manufacturing methods. The bills of materials are automatically generated, fed downwardly to the store flooring together with and thence chop-chop assembled using pre-built assemblies. Stock of the pre-built assemblies is managed past times Kan Ban methods that trigger replenishment orders from the diverse workcells inwards the facility.
Q) Is at that topographic point a laid upward accuse for production?
A) None
Q) How long does it accept to larn all the security approvals?
A) H5N1 expert modular ability render serial has all the security certifications in-place to comprehend all of the potential configurations. Often these include EN61010 (test & measurement) together with EN60601 (medical) certifications.
Q) How presently tin I larn a unit?
A) Because the modular units role pre-built assemblies, lead-time tin move equally brusk equally 48 hours. Several U.S. of A. distributors receive got arrangements amongst ability render manufacturers to produce the assembly. These are frequently called VARs (Value Added Resellers). Lambda has several VARs who tin chop-chop laid upward supplies to your needs.
Q) Are these units expensive?
A) Not really. Prices receive got dropped substantially since 1980 when Lambda commencement introduced modular supplies. It is non unheard of for our customers to move using inwards excess of grand units/year.
Q) Why should I role a modular over a modified measure or custom?
A) As these modular products are sold to a huge release of unlike customers, who are using them over a broad hit of applications, the likelihood of a occupation is minimal. With a custom or modified measure that remove chances goes upward dramatically equally yous volition move the "beta" site.
Q) Can I larn strange output voltages?
A) Yes, many output "modules" characteristic a broad adjustment range, frequently 2:1. Recently, nosotros had a client inquire for v (5) floating 18V outputs together with nosotros were able to run into their needs amongst a modular ability supply.
If yous receive got whatsoever questions regarding Modular Power Supplies, delight permit us know.
Info!! What Size Together With Type Of Output Wires Should 1 Use?
There are ii principal considerations for sizing DC wiring from the output of a ability render to its load. They are ampacity (fancy term for the issue of Amps) as well as voltage-drop (remember ohms law: V = I x R). Ampacity refers to a rubber electrical flow carrying score equally specified yesteryear security organizations such equally Underwriters Laboratories as well as the National Fire Prevention Association, which publishes the National Electric Code (NEC).
AWG stands for American Wire Gauge as well as defines the diameter as well as cross sectional expanse of the wire. The smaller the AWG number, the larger the diameter, cross-sectional area, as well as electrical flow carrying capacity of the wire. Always role insulated wires amongst company or stranded pure copper conductors (do non role aluminum or copper-clad steel wires). The voltage-drop is exactly the total of voltage lost inwards a length of wire due to the resistance of the conductor.
DC wires may endure sized for either ampacity or voltage drib depending on the wire length as well as conductor heating. In general, ampacity considerations volition campaign wire alternative for brusque wire lengths (less than fifty feet) as well as voltage drib volition campaign wire alternative for longer lengths (greater than fifty feet). Note: If yous are using the Remote Sense characteristic of the ability supply, think to remain inside the maximum voltage drib across the cables that the Remote Sense is designed to compensate for, which tin make from 0.3V to 1.0V (check the ability supply’s user-manual for details).
The National Electric Code tabular array 310.16 provides ampacity values for diverse sizes, bundles, as well as insulation temperature rated wires. ALWAYS FOLLOW THE NEC RULES, LOCAL CODES, AND YOUR COMPANY’S PRACTICES WHEN SELECTING DC WIRING.
Table 1 shows the MINIMUM recommended wire sizes for unlike charge currents. The role of larger diameter wires (with a smaller AWG number) would cut back the voltage drib (and oestrus generated) across the wires. The electrical flow ratings inwards Table 1 are based upon using 90° C rated insulated wire. If using a lower temperature rated insulated wire (e.g., 60° C), the wire diameter would bespeak to endure larger. Refer to the next spider web site for to a greater extent than data nearly wire gauges: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_wire_gauge .
For example, per Table 1 below, a charge electrical flow of 200 Amps would require a minimum of ii # 2 AWG wires connected inwards parallel for each of the output connections (one yoke or wires for the positive (+) as well as 1 yoke for negative (-) output connections to the load). Again, larger diameter wires would decrease the voltage drops across these wires.
AWG stands for American Wire Gauge as well as defines the diameter as well as cross sectional expanse of the wire. The smaller the AWG number, the larger the diameter, cross-sectional area, as well as electrical flow carrying capacity of the wire. Always role insulated wires amongst company or stranded pure copper conductors (do non role aluminum or copper-clad steel wires). The voltage-drop is exactly the total of voltage lost inwards a length of wire due to the resistance of the conductor.
DC wires may endure sized for either ampacity or voltage drib depending on the wire length as well as conductor heating. In general, ampacity considerations volition campaign wire alternative for brusque wire lengths (less than fifty feet) as well as voltage drib volition campaign wire alternative for longer lengths (greater than fifty feet). Note: If yous are using the Remote Sense characteristic of the ability supply, think to remain inside the maximum voltage drib across the cables that the Remote Sense is designed to compensate for, which tin make from 0.3V to 1.0V (check the ability supply’s user-manual for details).
The National Electric Code tabular array 310.16 provides ampacity values for diverse sizes, bundles, as well as insulation temperature rated wires. ALWAYS FOLLOW THE NEC RULES, LOCAL CODES, AND YOUR COMPANY’S PRACTICES WHEN SELECTING DC WIRING.
Table 1 shows the MINIMUM recommended wire sizes for unlike charge currents. The role of larger diameter wires (with a smaller AWG number) would cut back the voltage drib (and oestrus generated) across the wires. The electrical flow ratings inwards Table 1 are based upon using 90° C rated insulated wire. If using a lower temperature rated insulated wire (e.g., 60° C), the wire diameter would bespeak to endure larger. Refer to the next spider web site for to a greater extent than data nearly wire gauges: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_wire_gauge .
For example, per Table 1 below, a charge electrical flow of 200 Amps would require a minimum of ii # 2 AWG wires connected inwards parallel for each of the output connections (one yoke or wires for the positive (+) as well as 1 yoke for negative (-) output connections to the load). Again, larger diameter wires would decrease the voltage drops across these wires.
Info!! Tin One Run My Ac-Dc Ability Provide Amongst A Dc Input?
The answer is yes, sometimes.
Many criterion AC-DC switch fashion ability supplies (most of Lambda’s products) specify a high voltage DC input make inwards add-on to the to a greater extent than mutual air-conditioning input make of 90-264VAC. We have many questions well-nigh how together with where to connect the DC input to an AC-DC furnish that is spec’d to travel off of DC likewise equally an air-conditioning inputs.
Where together with why is high voltage DC ability used? It turns out that many ability generation facilities provide a high voltage DC to ability the plant’s equipment rather than the regular 115VAC or 208VAC ability grid. This high voltage DC (typically 120 or 130-330VDC) tin last easily used amongst batteries to provide a secure root of ability rather than using expensive centralized or local UPS systems.
Now dorsum to the subject. The topology of many switch-mode ability supplies genuinely lends itself to performance from either air-conditioning or DC input. Important Note: Always banking concern jibe your ability supply’s Operations Manual or spec canvass to confirm that it is designed to travel from either an air-conditioning or DC input.
Referring to the simplified ability furnish schematic below:
When powered yesteryear an air-conditioning sine wave, during the showtime one-half bike the electrical flow flows from the Line final through the input filter together with charges capacitor C1 through diodes D1 together with D3. During the minute (negative) cycle, electrical flow flows from the Neutral final together with capacitor C1 is charged through diodes D2 together with D4.
When powered from a high voltage DC source, the polarity of the connectedness is non critical equally far equally the performance of the ability furnish is concerned. If the positive connectedness is made to the Line terminal, C1 is charged through diodes D1 together with D3. If the positive connectedness is made to the Neutral terminal, together with thence C1 is charged through diodes D2 together with D4.
An of import bill of caution to insert hither is well-nigh the protective fusing of the ability supply. Internally most ability supplies bring a fast acting air-conditioning rated fuse inwards serial amongst the Line terminal. It is recommended that a DC rated fuse last installed external to the ability supply. If 1 side of the high voltage DC osculation is connected to ground, together with thence the fuse is unremarkably positioned inwards serial amongst the “hot” side (the ungrounded side). It is recommended that you lot consult amongst your local security engineer to last sure.
Many criterion AC-DC switch fashion ability supplies (most of Lambda’s products) specify a high voltage DC input make inwards add-on to the to a greater extent than mutual air-conditioning input make of 90-264VAC. We have many questions well-nigh how together with where to connect the DC input to an AC-DC furnish that is spec’d to travel off of DC likewise equally an air-conditioning inputs.
Where together with why is high voltage DC ability used? It turns out that many ability generation facilities provide a high voltage DC to ability the plant’s equipment rather than the regular 115VAC or 208VAC ability grid. This high voltage DC (typically 120 or 130-330VDC) tin last easily used amongst batteries to provide a secure root of ability rather than using expensive centralized or local UPS systems.
Now dorsum to the subject. The topology of many switch-mode ability supplies genuinely lends itself to performance from either air-conditioning or DC input. Important Note: Always banking concern jibe your ability supply’s Operations Manual or spec canvass to confirm that it is designed to travel from either an air-conditioning or DC input.
Referring to the simplified ability furnish schematic below:
When powered yesteryear an air-conditioning sine wave, during the showtime one-half bike the electrical flow flows from the Line final through the input filter together with charges capacitor C1 through diodes D1 together with D3. During the minute (negative) cycle, electrical flow flows from the Neutral final together with capacitor C1 is charged through diodes D2 together with D4.
When powered from a high voltage DC source, the polarity of the connectedness is non critical equally far equally the performance of the ability furnish is concerned. If the positive connectedness is made to the Line terminal, C1 is charged through diodes D1 together with D3. If the positive connectedness is made to the Neutral terminal, together with thence C1 is charged through diodes D2 together with D4.
An of import bill of caution to insert hither is well-nigh the protective fusing of the ability supply. Internally most ability supplies bring a fast acting air-conditioning rated fuse inwards serial amongst the Line terminal. It is recommended that a DC rated fuse last installed external to the ability supply. If 1 side of the high voltage DC osculation is connected to ground, together with thence the fuse is unremarkably positioned inwards serial amongst the “hot” side (the ungrounded side). It is recommended that you lot consult amongst your local security engineer to last sure.
Info!! What’S All This Materials Nigh Digital Power?
It seems that every 2-3 weeks an article or intelligence statement almost “Digital Power” appears inwards electronic pattern periodicals or online intelligence links. In fact, i manufacture newsletter seems to survive having a dear thing with digital power, every bit it mentions it inwards simply almost every issue.
So what is all this fuss almost Digital Power in addition to what is it anyway? Well, the uncomplicated respond is that at that topographic point are 2 basic types of digital power. These are Digital Control (used internal to the mightiness devices) in addition to Digital Power Management (provides external command in addition to communications betwixt mightiness devices in addition to a principal controller).
Digital Control
The bulk of switchmode AC-DC in addition to DC-DC mightiness supplies/converters exercise analog techniques to regulate/control the output voltage, current, in addition to mightiness ingredient correction circuits, etc. The closest that most of these devices come upward to looking a chip digital (On/Off states) inwards nature is past times employing Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) inwards their switching regulator circuits; but fifty-fifty that is a chip of a stretch.
In recent years, novel integrated circuits (ICs) convey been developed that tin supplant “analog” command ICs in addition to discrete circuits, which are used extensively inwards all mightiness devices, with those that are, at to the lowest degree inwards part, “digital” inwards nature. These internal ICs in addition to circuits perform such command functions as: voltage rule (VR), mightiness ingredient correction (PFC), pulse width modulation (PWM) control, internal monitoring/alarms, in addition to external communications.
The payoff of these digital ICs is that they tin survive programmed past times engineers with digital or analog electronics training. And, since the Universities are pumping out to a greater extent than digital (e.g., calculator science) than analog engineers these days, these digital ICs are becoming attractive. However, at introduce the cost of these digital ICs (along with NRE for the equipment needed to programme the devices) is all the same higher than for the mature analog ICs. Nonetheless, around predict that these IC costs volition locomote equal inside the adjacent 12 months or so. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 potential disadvantage of these digital ICs is that, past times their nature, they require a high speed clock to operate, which tin add together to the radiated in addition to conducted dissonance coming from the mightiness provide or converter. However, advanced functions such every bit error diagnostics/prevention in addition to improved mightiness efficiencies are with the promises of the novel digital command ICs.
Digital Power Management
As mentioned above, Digital Power Management (DPM) involves the external command in addition to communications betwixt mightiness supplies (or converters) in addition to a principal controller. Currently, many analog-based mightiness solutions already convey the mightiness to communicate with an external calculator or controller via digital communications links (e.g., RS232, RS485, GPIB, or I2C bus).
Newer DPM command in addition to communications formats convey evolved that are designed to operate with the novel digitally-controlled mightiness devices. These include DPM technologies such every bit PMBus (Power Management Bus) in addition to Z-One. Sadly, these technologies are non compatible or interchangeable. In fact, currently at that topographic point are lawsuits betwixt the backers of both of these technologies.
If I were a potential user of these Digital Power Management schemes, I would remain clear of them until the lawsuits are settled (expected to spill out inside the adjacent 12 months), rather than detect out after that the cost of these DPM ICs or controllers convey substantially increased due to royalties that must straight off survive paid to the society that won the lawsuit.
The potential advantages of the DPM in addition to digital mightiness technologies inwards general, include enhanced bidirectional communications, error diagnostics, remote programming of the linked mightiness supplies/converters, automatic compensation of dynamic input in addition to output charge changes, in addition to overall improvements inwards efficiencies that relate to green-power.
In Summary
Although “Digital Power” is a pop buzzword these days, peculiarly past times those companies who convey developed or adopted the technologies, the bottom business volition ever be: “What produce I instruct for my money?” At present, at that topographic point are hardly whatsoever mightiness provide or converter applications that “must have” digital mightiness when compared to the many lower cost in addition to field-proven analog solutions that exist.
For example, during their novel power-product pattern in addition to evolution process, Lambda has designed in-parallel devices that employed both analog along with those that exercise digital command ICs in addition to technologies. In all cases, the finally conclusion on which engineering ultimately goes into production has been based on comparative price/performance factors; which is the dominant conclusion ingredient for their customers.
When the fourth dimension comes that digital mightiness products offering the same or improve functioning in addition to reliability, along with the ”needed features”, at the same or lower toll every bit analog-based products, that is when Digital Power volition locomote the winning technology. Realistically, someday digital mightiness volition provide a price/performance payoff over purely analog mightiness devices. Who knows for sure when that fourth dimension volition come.
So what is all this fuss almost Digital Power in addition to what is it anyway? Well, the uncomplicated respond is that at that topographic point are 2 basic types of digital power. These are Digital Control (used internal to the mightiness devices) in addition to Digital Power Management (provides external command in addition to communications betwixt mightiness devices in addition to a principal controller).
Digital Control
The bulk of switchmode AC-DC in addition to DC-DC mightiness supplies/converters exercise analog techniques to regulate/control the output voltage, current, in addition to mightiness ingredient correction circuits, etc. The closest that most of these devices come upward to looking a chip digital (On/Off states) inwards nature is past times employing Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) inwards their switching regulator circuits; but fifty-fifty that is a chip of a stretch.
In recent years, novel integrated circuits (ICs) convey been developed that tin supplant “analog” command ICs in addition to discrete circuits, which are used extensively inwards all mightiness devices, with those that are, at to the lowest degree inwards part, “digital” inwards nature. These internal ICs in addition to circuits perform such command functions as: voltage rule (VR), mightiness ingredient correction (PFC), pulse width modulation (PWM) control, internal monitoring/alarms, in addition to external communications.
The payoff of these digital ICs is that they tin survive programmed past times engineers with digital or analog electronics training. And, since the Universities are pumping out to a greater extent than digital (e.g., calculator science) than analog engineers these days, these digital ICs are becoming attractive. However, at introduce the cost of these digital ICs (along with NRE for the equipment needed to programme the devices) is all the same higher than for the mature analog ICs. Nonetheless, around predict that these IC costs volition locomote equal inside the adjacent 12 months or so. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 potential disadvantage of these digital ICs is that, past times their nature, they require a high speed clock to operate, which tin add together to the radiated in addition to conducted dissonance coming from the mightiness provide or converter. However, advanced functions such every bit error diagnostics/prevention in addition to improved mightiness efficiencies are with the promises of the novel digital command ICs.
Digital Power Management
As mentioned above, Digital Power Management (DPM) involves the external command in addition to communications betwixt mightiness supplies (or converters) in addition to a principal controller. Currently, many analog-based mightiness solutions already convey the mightiness to communicate with an external calculator or controller via digital communications links (e.g., RS232, RS485, GPIB, or I2C bus).
Newer DPM command in addition to communications formats convey evolved that are designed to operate with the novel digitally-controlled mightiness devices. These include DPM technologies such every bit PMBus (Power Management Bus) in addition to Z-One. Sadly, these technologies are non compatible or interchangeable. In fact, currently at that topographic point are lawsuits betwixt the backers of both of these technologies.
If I were a potential user of these Digital Power Management schemes, I would remain clear of them until the lawsuits are settled (expected to spill out inside the adjacent 12 months), rather than detect out after that the cost of these DPM ICs or controllers convey substantially increased due to royalties that must straight off survive paid to the society that won the lawsuit.
The potential advantages of the DPM in addition to digital mightiness technologies inwards general, include enhanced bidirectional communications, error diagnostics, remote programming of the linked mightiness supplies/converters, automatic compensation of dynamic input in addition to output charge changes, in addition to overall improvements inwards efficiencies that relate to green-power.
In Summary
Although “Digital Power” is a pop buzzword these days, peculiarly past times those companies who convey developed or adopted the technologies, the bottom business volition ever be: “What produce I instruct for my money?” At present, at that topographic point are hardly whatsoever mightiness provide or converter applications that “must have” digital mightiness when compared to the many lower cost in addition to field-proven analog solutions that exist.
For example, during their novel power-product pattern in addition to evolution process, Lambda has designed in-parallel devices that employed both analog along with those that exercise digital command ICs in addition to technologies. In all cases, the finally conclusion on which engineering ultimately goes into production has been based on comparative price/performance factors; which is the dominant conclusion ingredient for their customers.
When the fourth dimension comes that digital mightiness products offering the same or improve functioning in addition to reliability, along with the ”needed features”, at the same or lower toll every bit analog-based products, that is when Digital Power volition locomote the winning technology. Realistically, someday digital mightiness volition provide a price/performance payoff over purely analog mightiness devices. Who knows for sure when that fourth dimension volition come.
Info!! Advances Inwards Ability Supplies For Automated Electrochemical Mini-Plants
On-site as well as on-demand production of disinfectants, biocides as well as H2O purification chemicals including sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide has been substantially improved via the usage of advanced switch-mode mightiness supplies that provide the mightiness for automated electrochemical generators.
Many municipal water, nutrient processing, as well as wastewater handling plants are switching over from the usage of chlorine disinfectants as well as biocides to safer as well as to a greater extent than environmentally friendly point-of-use as well as on-demand generated chemicals. The primary reasons for this modify are that conventional chlorine agents require carry past times tankers on accident-prone highways or railroads, ever increasing security as well as environmental regulations regarding toxic gases as well as chemic spills, as well as the required volume storage of these hazardous materials at the sites where they are used. Safer as well as inwards many cases to a greater extent than effective chemicals bring been developed that tin supervene upon chlorine. For example, later many trial as well as fault attempts to notice a way to effectively command Legionnaires’ disease, it was flora that chlorine dioxide (CIO2) was i the few chemic agents that could consistently as well as safely disinfect Legionella bacteria (see References). Add to this the mightiness to industry these safer chemicals at the locations that usage them, as well as alone when needed, as well as the advantages inwards total larn obvious.
Two pop substitute chemicals for chlorine are sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) as well as chlorine dioxide (CIO2) both of which tin last manufactured via mini-plants (aka, generators) that are delivered to the halt users’ site every bit a consummate packet as well as provide the disinfectants on-demand as well as every bit needed. In many cases, these mini-plants piece of employment automatically as well as tin last employed inwards unmanned locations such every bit municipal H2O handling sites.
These electrochemical generators usage the procedure of electrolysis every bit the footing for the production of these disinfecting as well as biocide chemicals. Recalling our scientific discipline classes, electrolysis is a mutual method of separating bonded elements as well as compounds past times passing an electrical electric current through them. It involves applying a voltage betwixt ii electrodes (anode as well as cathode) which are submerged inwards a conductive solution (electrolyte). When a voltage is applied to the electrodes, electrical electric current flows as well as inwards plow breaks downward the molecules inside the solution into its components (Figure 1).
Figure 1 shows usage of the procedure that is used to create sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI), which is to a greater extent than commonly known every bit identify bleach when sold every bit a solution containing 5-6% of NaOCI. However, instead of a static vessel every bit shown inwards Figure 1, modern electrochemical generators catch the electrolyte solution continuously through i or to a greater extent than tubes that bring the electrodes mounted inside them. As the electrolytic solution flows through these tubes (electrolytic cells), the electrolysis procedure continuously separates the molecular components. In some instances, the solution is run through the dual-electrode electrolytic cells to a greater extent than than i time to farther refine as well as dissever the resulting chemicals. (Note: Batteries piece of employment past times a contrary procedure from electrolysis; they generate electricity past times way of galvanic or voltaic cells that comprise anode as well as cathode electrodes that are inwards contact alongside an electrolyte solution or gel.)
Historically, the mightiness supplies that provide the driving forcefulness for electrochemical generators bring evolved from basic transformer as well as diode rectifiers, to transformer as well as SCR (silicon-controlled-rectifier) mightiness sources, to modern as well as to a greater extent than sophisticated mightiness sources. The evolution of the switchmode mightiness provide greatly reduced the size as well as substantially improved the efficiency of these mightiness sources. In addition, switchmode mightiness supplies bring the mightiness to provide electronic signals for status data (volts, amps, temperature, etc.), remote control, as well as communications to as well as from a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) or a local/remote computerized controller.
The vast bulk of switchmode mightiness supplies are designed to piece of employment every bit regulated voltage mightiness sources. These supplies regulate the output voltage real exactly regardless of the amount of electrical current drawn from the supply, upwardly to its blueprint limit. For example, a 1500-watt provide tin provide a 12-volts output spell providing from 0 to 125 amperes of current. Once the maximum electrical current of 125-amps is reached, the provide is designed to plow over into a current-limit trend (where the output voltage is automatically reduced or the provide shuts down).
Figure 2 higher upwardly shows the loop diagram of a typical sodium hypochlorite generator. The usage of the arrangement shown higher upwardly that is called the Electrolyzer consists of multiple electrolytic cells (tubes containing electrodes), connected inwards series, through which the electrolytic solution is pumped as well as inwards plow separated into its primary chemic components (e.g., sodium hypochlorite solution as well as hydrogen gas) via electrolysis. The electrochemical procedure for manufacturing chlorine dioxide is like to the higher upwardly except it starts alongside a solution of sodium chlorite.
It has been flora that inwards many electrochemical processes, including the production of disinfecting agents, that measure voltage-regulated mightiness supplies make non ever provide the ideal mightiness profile for these processes. In fact, inwards many instances, the mightiness supplies are existence forced to piece of employment at a fixed voltage as well as at roughly their maximum electrical current rating. If these operating weather condition are maintained for long periods of time, the provide volition internally heat-up as well as prematurely fail, therefore shutting downward the production of the disinfecting agents.
Why does this move on as well as how tin it last avoided? As described above, during the electrochemical process, inwards companionship to plow over along upwardly alongside the continuous electrolysis procedure alongside constantly flowing electrolyte solutions, the mightiness provide must provide a high plenty voltage to overcome the impedance betwixt the ii electrodes as well as the solution surrounding them, and, to a greater extent than importantly, to provide a high plenty electrical current density (amperes) to effectively dissever the molecules during the brusk fourth dimension (determined past times the flow rate) that the solution comes inwards contact alongside the electrodes. By using a switchmode mightiness provide that is designed to piece of employment inwards a “constant-current” trend (instead of constant-voltage, every bit is the norm) the electrochemical procedure has been flora to create chemicals much faster, alongside consistent high quality, without forcing the mightiness provide into an overload state.
There are a publish of ways of providing current-mode mightiness supplies for enhanced electrochemical applications. One method is to usage Programmable Power Supplies. These supplies are designed to last manually or remotely programmed to piece of employment inwards a voltage-mode and/or a electrical current mode, at a specific voltage as well as electrical current range, along alongside other specified parameters. As an added bonus these supplies commonly include a series digital communications port that allows it “talk” to local or remote estimator controllers. Additionally, these supplies tin last connected inwards parallel to the electrodes, or to groups of electrodes, when an electrochemical procedure requires to a greater extent than electrical current than i provide tin provide. For example, Lambda Americas’ model ZUP10-80/U programmable mightiness supplies is adjustable from 0 to 10-volts alongside 0 to 80-amps (800 watts total). This type of provide is existence used inwards its “constant-current” trend to efficiently create disinfectant as well as biocide chemicals at many unmanned, non-air conditioned, municipal H2O handling sites. In some applications, ii or to a greater extent than ZUP supplies are connected inwards parallel to provide the necessary amount of electrical current for the electrochemical process.
Another method of providing a “constant-current” trend mightiness provide is to modify the blueprint of a voltage regulated supply. This tin last done past times adding circuits that monitor the supply’s output electrical current to preclude an overload, nonetheless keep a “constant-current” profile from the supply. For example, Lambda Americas has produced modified versions its HWS-CC 1500-watt provide to make exactly this. In electrochemical applications that create disinfectant as well as biocide chemicals, a publish of these “current-mode” supplies are connected to dissimilar sets of electrodes, and/or, inwards parallel, to back upwardly dissimilar output electrical current requirements for diverse models of electrochemical generators. Obviously, generators that create higher output rates of chemicals require higher electrical current levels.
Lambda’s HWS-CC Series Power Supplies
This newspaper has focused on the techniques as well as benefits related to advanced switchmode mightiness supplies for mini-electrochemical generators (self-contained plants) that create disinfecting as well as biocide chemicals on-site. It should last noted that electrolysis processes are used extensively inwards many other chemic as well as industrial areas, some of which are listed below.
In summary, the application of switchmode mightiness supplies operating inwards a “constant-current” trend has been shown to provide pregnant improvements inwards electrochemical self contained mini-plant generators that are used to create disinfecting as well as biocide chemicals. These benefits include:
References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/520378
http://www.lambdapower.com/ http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/dw/Publications/alternate_disinfectants.htm
Many municipal water, nutrient processing, as well as wastewater handling plants are switching over from the usage of chlorine disinfectants as well as biocides to safer as well as to a greater extent than environmentally friendly point-of-use as well as on-demand generated chemicals. The primary reasons for this modify are that conventional chlorine agents require carry past times tankers on accident-prone highways or railroads, ever increasing security as well as environmental regulations regarding toxic gases as well as chemic spills, as well as the required volume storage of these hazardous materials at the sites where they are used. Safer as well as inwards many cases to a greater extent than effective chemicals bring been developed that tin supervene upon chlorine. For example, later many trial as well as fault attempts to notice a way to effectively command Legionnaires’ disease, it was flora that chlorine dioxide (CIO2) was i the few chemic agents that could consistently as well as safely disinfect Legionella bacteria (see References). Add to this the mightiness to industry these safer chemicals at the locations that usage them, as well as alone when needed, as well as the advantages inwards total larn obvious.
Two pop substitute chemicals for chlorine are sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) as well as chlorine dioxide (CIO2) both of which tin last manufactured via mini-plants (aka, generators) that are delivered to the halt users’ site every bit a consummate packet as well as provide the disinfectants on-demand as well as every bit needed. In many cases, these mini-plants piece of employment automatically as well as tin last employed inwards unmanned locations such every bit municipal H2O handling sites.
These electrochemical generators usage the procedure of electrolysis every bit the footing for the production of these disinfecting as well as biocide chemicals. Recalling our scientific discipline classes, electrolysis is a mutual method of separating bonded elements as well as compounds past times passing an electrical electric current through them. It involves applying a voltage betwixt ii electrodes (anode as well as cathode) which are submerged inwards a conductive solution (electrolyte). When a voltage is applied to the electrodes, electrical electric current flows as well as inwards plow breaks downward the molecules inside the solution into its components (Figure 1).
Figure 1 shows usage of the procedure that is used to create sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI), which is to a greater extent than commonly known every bit identify bleach when sold every bit a solution containing 5-6% of NaOCI. However, instead of a static vessel every bit shown inwards Figure 1, modern electrochemical generators catch the electrolyte solution continuously through i or to a greater extent than tubes that bring the electrodes mounted inside them. As the electrolytic solution flows through these tubes (electrolytic cells), the electrolysis procedure continuously separates the molecular components. In some instances, the solution is run through the dual-electrode electrolytic cells to a greater extent than than i time to farther refine as well as dissever the resulting chemicals. (Note: Batteries piece of employment past times a contrary procedure from electrolysis; they generate electricity past times way of galvanic or voltaic cells that comprise anode as well as cathode electrodes that are inwards contact alongside an electrolyte solution or gel.)
Historically, the mightiness supplies that provide the driving forcefulness for electrochemical generators bring evolved from basic transformer as well as diode rectifiers, to transformer as well as SCR (silicon-controlled-rectifier) mightiness sources, to modern as well as to a greater extent than sophisticated mightiness sources. The evolution of the switchmode mightiness provide greatly reduced the size as well as substantially improved the efficiency of these mightiness sources. In addition, switchmode mightiness supplies bring the mightiness to provide electronic signals for status data (volts, amps, temperature, etc.), remote control, as well as communications to as well as from a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) or a local/remote computerized controller.
The vast bulk of switchmode mightiness supplies are designed to piece of employment every bit regulated voltage mightiness sources. These supplies regulate the output voltage real exactly regardless of the amount of electrical current drawn from the supply, upwardly to its blueprint limit. For example, a 1500-watt provide tin provide a 12-volts output spell providing from 0 to 125 amperes of current. Once the maximum electrical current of 125-amps is reached, the provide is designed to plow over into a current-limit trend (where the output voltage is automatically reduced or the provide shuts down).
Figure 2 higher upwardly shows the loop diagram of a typical sodium hypochlorite generator. The usage of the arrangement shown higher upwardly that is called the Electrolyzer consists of multiple electrolytic cells (tubes containing electrodes), connected inwards series, through which the electrolytic solution is pumped as well as inwards plow separated into its primary chemic components (e.g., sodium hypochlorite solution as well as hydrogen gas) via electrolysis. The electrochemical procedure for manufacturing chlorine dioxide is like to the higher upwardly except it starts alongside a solution of sodium chlorite.
It has been flora that inwards many electrochemical processes, including the production of disinfecting agents, that measure voltage-regulated mightiness supplies make non ever provide the ideal mightiness profile for these processes. In fact, inwards many instances, the mightiness supplies are existence forced to piece of employment at a fixed voltage as well as at roughly their maximum electrical current rating. If these operating weather condition are maintained for long periods of time, the provide volition internally heat-up as well as prematurely fail, therefore shutting downward the production of the disinfecting agents.
Why does this move on as well as how tin it last avoided? As described above, during the electrochemical process, inwards companionship to plow over along upwardly alongside the continuous electrolysis procedure alongside constantly flowing electrolyte solutions, the mightiness provide must provide a high plenty voltage to overcome the impedance betwixt the ii electrodes as well as the solution surrounding them, and, to a greater extent than importantly, to provide a high plenty electrical current density (amperes) to effectively dissever the molecules during the brusk fourth dimension (determined past times the flow rate) that the solution comes inwards contact alongside the electrodes. By using a switchmode mightiness provide that is designed to piece of employment inwards a “constant-current” trend (instead of constant-voltage, every bit is the norm) the electrochemical procedure has been flora to create chemicals much faster, alongside consistent high quality, without forcing the mightiness provide into an overload state.
There are a publish of ways of providing current-mode mightiness supplies for enhanced electrochemical applications. One method is to usage Programmable Power Supplies. These supplies are designed to last manually or remotely programmed to piece of employment inwards a voltage-mode and/or a electrical current mode, at a specific voltage as well as electrical current range, along alongside other specified parameters. As an added bonus these supplies commonly include a series digital communications port that allows it “talk” to local or remote estimator controllers. Additionally, these supplies tin last connected inwards parallel to the electrodes, or to groups of electrodes, when an electrochemical procedure requires to a greater extent than electrical current than i provide tin provide. For example, Lambda Americas’ model ZUP10-80/U programmable mightiness supplies is adjustable from 0 to 10-volts alongside 0 to 80-amps (800 watts total). This type of provide is existence used inwards its “constant-current” trend to efficiently create disinfectant as well as biocide chemicals at many unmanned, non-air conditioned, municipal H2O handling sites. In some applications, ii or to a greater extent than ZUP supplies are connected inwards parallel to provide the necessary amount of electrical current for the electrochemical process.
Another method of providing a “constant-current” trend mightiness provide is to modify the blueprint of a voltage regulated supply. This tin last done past times adding circuits that monitor the supply’s output electrical current to preclude an overload, nonetheless keep a “constant-current” profile from the supply. For example, Lambda Americas has produced modified versions its HWS-CC 1500-watt provide to make exactly this. In electrochemical applications that create disinfectant as well as biocide chemicals, a publish of these “current-mode” supplies are connected to dissimilar sets of electrodes, and/or, inwards parallel, to back upwardly dissimilar output electrical current requirements for diverse models of electrochemical generators. Obviously, generators that create higher output rates of chemicals require higher electrical current levels.
Lambda’s HWS-CC Series Power SuppliesThis newspaper has focused on the techniques as well as benefits related to advanced switchmode mightiness supplies for mini-electrochemical generators (self-contained plants) that create disinfecting as well as biocide chemicals on-site. It should last noted that electrolysis processes are used extensively inwards many other chemic as well as industrial areas, some of which are listed below.
- Production of aluminum, copper, sodium
- Anodizing
- Production of hydrogen (e.g., for the cars as well as fuel cells of the future)
- Electroplating as well as polishing
- Large waste matter H2O handling plants
- Factory as well as mightiness flora cooling towers - recirculating H2O treatments
In summary, the application of switchmode mightiness supplies operating inwards a “constant-current” trend has been shown to provide pregnant improvements inwards electrochemical self contained mini-plant generators that are used to create disinfecting as well as biocide chemicals. These benefits include:
- Improved current-density command for consistent electrolysis
- Enhanced lineament of the resulting chemicals
- Higher efficiencies as well as improved rule of the mightiness sources
- Reduced infinite as well as weight
- Power Supplies run into international Safety as well as Power Factor Correction (PFC) standards
- Availability of digital communications, remote control, as well as status signals
- Substantial reduction of downtime
References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/520378
http://www.lambdapower.com/ http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/dw/Publications/alternate_disinfectants.htm
Info!! A “Beginner’S Guide” To Error Tolerant Ability Supplies
The effectiveness of having a error tolerant ability strategy was demonstrated afterward hurricane Katrina striking the Gulf Coast inward 2005. H5N1 fiscal intelligence tv set station interviewed the heads of 2 telecom carriers to notice out when their scream upwards services would hold upwards operational again. The interview was really brusk – “we never lost service” they replied.
The scream upwards systems nosotros guide maintain for granted guide maintain expensive together with complex dorsum upwards systems. Fault tolerant ability supplies are supported past times battery banks, generators together with uninterruptible ability supplies. Large Industrial complexes guide maintain also implemented like systems - having an fossil oil refinery halt production tin termination inward enormous sums of coin beingness lost!
For those amongst less extensive budgets, this brief article volition explicate the benefits, terminology together with tips on how to implement a relatively depression cost, merely effective system.
Why guide maintain redundant ability supplies?
Imagine a 24VDC 10A ability provide driving motors together with sensors on a conveyor based production line. For 2 or 3 years everything industrial plant fine, together with thence i Fri (always at the destination of the month), the ability provide fails causing the conveyor to stop. Even if a spare role is inward stock, it could nevertheless termination inward thirty minutes of expensive lost production.
If 2 identical ability supplies had been installed inward a error tolerant, redundant mode, the remaining (good) unit of measurement would guide maintain continued to ability the production line. The failed ability provide could together with thence hold upwards replaced at a to a greater extent than convenient fourth dimension during routine maintenance.
Frequently Used Terminology
N+1
An facial expression where due north is the publish of ability supplies needed to run the system. The unproblematic 2 ability provide organization mentioned inward a higher house would hold upwards considered 1+1. H5N1 triple redundant organization (where 2 failures would guide maintain to hap to near the organization down) would hold upwards designated 1+2.
Hot-swap
Some equipment is operated 24 hours a day, vii days a week, allowing no fourth dimension to select the organization downward for maintenance. In this illustration the failed ability provide must hold upwards “swapped” out together with a novel i inserted without disruption to equipment operation.
ORing diodes
In the rare lawsuit of a ability provide failing amongst a shorted output, depression voltage-drop ORing diodes block that brusk from bringing downward the organization power.
Current share
Some ability systems utilise a method of balancing the electrical flow betwixt the ability supplies to growth plain life. This tin hold upwards an electronic signal wire that links the ability supplies together or a switch* on the ability provide that initiates a slight driblet inward the output voltage every bit to a greater extent than electrical flow is drawn. (*Common on high ability DIN rails units)
Two Ways of Implementing Fault Tolerance
DIN Rail mount
For the illustration listed above, the simplest off-the-shelf solution is to utilization a diode “ORing” module together with 2 ability supplies. Here nosotros are using Lambda’s DIN rails mountain DLP-PU module together with 2 24V 10A DLP240-24-1/E ability supplies.
Tip: When wiring the system, ensure that the cable lengths from the output of the ability supplies to the ORing module are equal. This volition assistance optimize the performance together with life of the ability supplies.
Inside the diode ORing module are 2 diodes together with 2 warning relays. Even inward the lawsuit of i ability provide failing amongst an internal brusk circuit, the remaining unit of measurement volition perish along to deliver power. See below.
Tip: - It is of import to position ability provide failure using the relay alarms to flag the postulate for maintenance. Engineers sometimes overlook this which tin termination inward a 2d failure unexpectedly bringing the organization down!
Rack MountSystem Engineers requiring to a greater extent than ability are turning to the communications trend racks. These sophisticated depression damage systems allow ability supplies to hold upwards hot-swapped together with come upwards completely self contained. An illustration of such a production is Lambda’s FPS series.
Advantages of this solution include:
Click on http://www.lambdapower.com/products/fps-series.htm for an animated example.
Finally, i of import note
H5N1 fellowship wanted to ensure that inward the lawsuit of a ability provide failure their organization would perish along to operate. H5N1 battery was installed across the ability provide output to scope 24 hours uptime inward the lawsuit of a ability provide failure.
Unfortunately no idea was given to how anyone would know that the organization needed maintenance! The ability provide did eventually neglect together with the battery kept the organization upwards for 24 hours earlier it discharged resulting inward a organization shutdown. H5N1 unproblematic warning circuit could guide maintain prevented that.
If yous guide maintain Lambda’s recommendation to invest a picayune extra coin upwards forepart to brand your ability organization to a greater extent than secure, bear witness your organization to brand certain yous guide maintain it right!
The scream upwards systems nosotros guide maintain for granted guide maintain expensive together with complex dorsum upwards systems. Fault tolerant ability supplies are supported past times battery banks, generators together with uninterruptible ability supplies. Large Industrial complexes guide maintain also implemented like systems - having an fossil oil refinery halt production tin termination inward enormous sums of coin beingness lost!
For those amongst less extensive budgets, this brief article volition explicate the benefits, terminology together with tips on how to implement a relatively depression cost, merely effective system.
Why guide maintain redundant ability supplies?
Imagine a 24VDC 10A ability provide driving motors together with sensors on a conveyor based production line. For 2 or 3 years everything industrial plant fine, together with thence i Fri (always at the destination of the month), the ability provide fails causing the conveyor to stop. Even if a spare role is inward stock, it could nevertheless termination inward thirty minutes of expensive lost production.
If 2 identical ability supplies had been installed inward a error tolerant, redundant mode, the remaining (good) unit of measurement would guide maintain continued to ability the production line. The failed ability provide could together with thence hold upwards replaced at a to a greater extent than convenient fourth dimension during routine maintenance.
Frequently Used Terminology
N+1
An facial expression where due north is the publish of ability supplies needed to run the system. The unproblematic 2 ability provide organization mentioned inward a higher house would hold upwards considered 1+1. H5N1 triple redundant organization (where 2 failures would guide maintain to hap to near the organization down) would hold upwards designated 1+2.
Hot-swap
Some equipment is operated 24 hours a day, vii days a week, allowing no fourth dimension to select the organization downward for maintenance. In this illustration the failed ability provide must hold upwards “swapped” out together with a novel i inserted without disruption to equipment operation.
ORing diodes
In the rare lawsuit of a ability provide failing amongst a shorted output, depression voltage-drop ORing diodes block that brusk from bringing downward the organization power.
Current share
Some ability systems utilise a method of balancing the electrical flow betwixt the ability supplies to growth plain life. This tin hold upwards an electronic signal wire that links the ability supplies together or a switch* on the ability provide that initiates a slight driblet inward the output voltage every bit to a greater extent than electrical flow is drawn. (*Common on high ability DIN rails units)
Two Ways of Implementing Fault Tolerance
DIN Rail mount
For the illustration listed above, the simplest off-the-shelf solution is to utilization a diode “ORing” module together with 2 ability supplies. Here nosotros are using Lambda’s DIN rails mountain DLP-PU module together with 2 24V 10A DLP240-24-1/E ability supplies.
Tip: When wiring the system, ensure that the cable lengths from the output of the ability supplies to the ORing module are equal. This volition assistance optimize the performance together with life of the ability supplies.
Inside the diode ORing module are 2 diodes together with 2 warning relays. Even inward the lawsuit of i ability provide failing amongst an internal brusk circuit, the remaining unit of measurement volition perish along to deliver power. See below.
Tip: - It is of import to position ability provide failure using the relay alarms to flag the postulate for maintenance. Engineers sometimes overlook this which tin termination inward a 2d failure unexpectedly bringing the organization down!
Rack MountSystem Engineers requiring to a greater extent than ability are turning to the communications trend racks. These sophisticated depression damage systems allow ability supplies to hold upwards hot-swapped together with come upwards completely self contained. An illustration of such a production is Lambda’s FPS series.
Advantages of this solution include:- Easy mounting into a touchstone 19” rack
- All inward i solution
- Hotswap capable (ORing diodes or MOSFET switches built-in)
- No tools are required for replacement of a supply
- High density, depression profile (1.75”)
- Off the shelf parts
- Fully security approved
- All necessary warning signals included
- 12V, 24V, 32-36V together with 48V outputs
Click on http://www.lambdapower.com/products/fps-series.htm for an animated example.
Finally, i of import note
H5N1 fellowship wanted to ensure that inward the lawsuit of a ability provide failure their organization would perish along to operate. H5N1 battery was installed across the ability provide output to scope 24 hours uptime inward the lawsuit of a ability provide failure.
Unfortunately no idea was given to how anyone would know that the organization needed maintenance! The ability provide did eventually neglect together with the battery kept the organization upwards for 24 hours earlier it discharged resulting inward a organization shutdown. H5N1 unproblematic warning circuit could guide maintain prevented that.
If yous guide maintain Lambda’s recommendation to invest a picayune extra coin upwards forepart to brand your ability organization to a greater extent than secure, bear witness your organization to brand certain yous guide maintain it right!
Info!! Why Is My Ability Furnish Input Alone Rated From 100-240Vac?
Most ability supplies accept a rating label that looks something similar this:
However, a unopen await at the ability supply’s datasheet volition usually demo the absolute air-conditioning input voltage range, from minimum to maximum. This is usually 90-264VAC, or occasionally 85-264VAC if the ability render has been designed for Japanese use.
Nippon uses the lowest air-conditioning mains voltage, which is 100VAC nominal; however, brusk duration air-conditioning business droops or brown-out weather condition oftentimes mandate a rating downwardly to 85VAC. The UK of Britain as well as Northern Republic of Ireland is amid the countries that role the highest air-conditioning mains, amongst a nominal rating of 240VAC.
The security certification bodies (UL, CSA, TUV, etc.) mandate that a rating of 100-240VAC hold upwards listed on the ability supply’s label. However, they element inward a +/-10% tolerance for the ability generation as well as transmission utilities. -10% of 100VAC is 90VAC, as well as +10% of 240VAC is 264VAC. All security testing is performed at the high as well as depression limits equally listed on the ability supply’s datasheet.
So, if the ability render label states 100-240VAC, it tin mail away usually piece of job over a wider air-conditioning operating input range. However, ever banking concern represent amongst the manufacturer’s datasheet to confirm this. Continuous performance of the ability render over the datasheet’s specified air-conditioning input hit volition non unremarkably effort whatsoever problems. In to a greater extent than or less cases, however, the maximum output ability (total watts) of the ability render may involve to hold upwards derated if the render is operating off an input voltage that is on the low-end of the specified range. Always banking concern represent the ability supply’s datasheet for the specified minimum air-conditioning input voltage amongst diverse output charge levels. Deratings may besides apply depending upon the ability supply’s operating ambient temperatures.
Should a label dry reason 100/240VAC (note the slash) it “may” betoken that at that spot is a voltage choose switch or jumper that is required to hold upwards educate for the right operating input voltage range. Newer products tend to non accept an air-conditioning choose switch or jumper.
Worldwide, the air-conditioning mains ability has a nominal frequency of either l or threescore Hz (cycles per second). However, these frequencies are dependent champaign to variations past times the ability generators inward dissimilar countries (especially 3rd world) as well as and then the typical air-conditioning frequency hit for ability supplies is 47-63Hz.
However, a unopen await at the ability supply’s datasheet volition usually demo the absolute air-conditioning input voltage range, from minimum to maximum. This is usually 90-264VAC, or occasionally 85-264VAC if the ability render has been designed for Japanese use.
Nippon uses the lowest air-conditioning mains voltage, which is 100VAC nominal; however, brusk duration air-conditioning business droops or brown-out weather condition oftentimes mandate a rating downwardly to 85VAC. The UK of Britain as well as Northern Republic of Ireland is amid the countries that role the highest air-conditioning mains, amongst a nominal rating of 240VAC.
The security certification bodies (UL, CSA, TUV, etc.) mandate that a rating of 100-240VAC hold upwards listed on the ability supply’s label. However, they element inward a +/-10% tolerance for the ability generation as well as transmission utilities. -10% of 100VAC is 90VAC, as well as +10% of 240VAC is 264VAC. All security testing is performed at the high as well as depression limits equally listed on the ability supply’s datasheet.
So, if the ability render label states 100-240VAC, it tin mail away usually piece of job over a wider air-conditioning operating input range. However, ever banking concern represent amongst the manufacturer’s datasheet to confirm this. Continuous performance of the ability render over the datasheet’s specified air-conditioning input hit volition non unremarkably effort whatsoever problems. In to a greater extent than or less cases, however, the maximum output ability (total watts) of the ability render may involve to hold upwards derated if the render is operating off an input voltage that is on the low-end of the specified range. Always banking concern represent the ability supply’s datasheet for the specified minimum air-conditioning input voltage amongst diverse output charge levels. Deratings may besides apply depending upon the ability supply’s operating ambient temperatures.
Should a label dry reason 100/240VAC (note the slash) it “may” betoken that at that spot is a voltage choose switch or jumper that is required to hold upwards educate for the right operating input voltage range. Newer products tend to non accept an air-conditioning choose switch or jumper.
Worldwide, the air-conditioning mains ability has a nominal frequency of either l or threescore Hz (cycles per second). However, these frequencies are dependent champaign to variations past times the ability generators inward dissimilar countries (especially 3rd world) as well as and then the typical air-conditioning frequency hit for ability supplies is 47-63Hz.
Info!! Isolated & Non-Isolated Dc-Dc Converters
There are 2 oftentimes used price for types of DC-DC converters; non-isolated as well as isolated. This “isolation” refers to the being of an electrical barrier betwixt the input as well as output of the DC-DC converter.
The simplest example of a non isolated “converter” is the pop LM317 iii concluding linear regulator. One concluding for unregulated input, i for the regulated output as well as i for the common.
Source National Semiconductor
Note in that place is no isolation betwixt the input as well as output.
Today, non-isolated switching regulators are real common, or Point of Load (POL) converters.
Although depression toll as well as simple, these converters endure from i disadvantage inward that in that place is an electrical connexion betwixt the input as well as output. Many security way bodies and/or customers demand a separation from the applied input voltage as well as the output voltage which is often user accessible.
An isolated DC-DC converter volition convey a high frequency transformer providing that barrier. This barrier tin ambit the sack withstand anything from a few hundred volts to several K volts, equally is required for medical application.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 minute payoff of an isolated converter is that the output tin ambit the sack endure configured to endure either positive or negative.
Where many users operate confused concerns how to connect the input up, peculiarly amongst the differences betwixt a datacom organization (input negative connected to chassis) as well as a telecom organization (input positive connected to chassis).
Below are 4 scenarios, endure aware - figures 3 & 4 volition effect inward failed converters! Most DC-DC converters cannot withstand reversed input connections.
The simplest example of a non isolated “converter” is the pop LM317 iii concluding linear regulator. One concluding for unregulated input, i for the regulated output as well as i for the common.
Source National SemiconductorNote in that place is no isolation betwixt the input as well as output.
Today, non-isolated switching regulators are real common, or Point of Load (POL) converters.
Although depression toll as well as simple, these converters endure from i disadvantage inward that in that place is an electrical connexion betwixt the input as well as output. Many security way bodies and/or customers demand a separation from the applied input voltage as well as the output voltage which is often user accessible.
An isolated DC-DC converter volition convey a high frequency transformer providing that barrier. This barrier tin ambit the sack withstand anything from a few hundred volts to several K volts, equally is required for medical application.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 minute payoff of an isolated converter is that the output tin ambit the sack endure configured to endure either positive or negative.
Where many users operate confused concerns how to connect the input up, peculiarly amongst the differences betwixt a datacom organization (input negative connected to chassis) as well as a telecom organization (input positive connected to chassis).
Below are 4 scenarios, endure aware - figures 3 & 4 volition effect inward failed converters! Most DC-DC converters cannot withstand reversed input connections.
Info!! Postulate To Emc Standards For Ability Supplies
Introduction:
EMC refers to ElectroMagnetic Compatibility. Electrical equipment that takes ability from a distributed air-conditioning or DC origin which is connected to other equipment, such every bit the air-conditioning mains inward a building, has to have got minimal influence on that source. It every bit good has to have got minimal influence on other equipment through electromagnetic radiation. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 ability converter which incorporates switching devices operating at high frequency needs to employ special agency to hold the electromagnetic interference within internationally agreed upon limits. In general, electrical equipment has to operate inward its surroundings amongst minimal disturbance to its environment. The limits to disturbances are defined yesteryear the international standards described below.
Types of Standards:
1) Generic Standards:
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 top flat criterion for a type of equipment which encompasses specific basic standards inward their references. The electrical flow relevant criterion for ability supplies is EN61204-3: 2000. This covers the EMC requirements for ability render units amongst DC output(s) of upwards to 200V, at ability levels upwards to 30kW, as well as operating from air-conditioning or DC. origin voltages of upwards to 600V. The EN refers to Euro Norm or European standard. Europe has led the plain inward establishing standards for EMC as well as many other areas which have got been adopted worldwide, amongst or then local deviations.
2) Basic Standards List:
The relevant basic standards called upwards inward EN61204-3 are:
EN55022 as well as EN55011. Conducted as well as radiated electromagnetic interference emitted yesteryear the ability supply. This is every bit good known every bit CISPR22. The FCC has like standards inward the USA. There are 2 levels for the emission limits, Class Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 as well as Class B. Class B is ordinarily required which puts a lower boundary on allowed emissions.
EN61000-4-2. Immunity to electrostatic discharge.
EN61000-4-3. Immunity to radiated radio frequencies.
EN61000-4-4. Immunity to fast transient voltages on the input lines.
EN61000-4-5. Immunity to lightning surges on the input lines.
EN61000-4-6. Immunity to conducted radio frequencies.
EN61000-4-8. Immunity to ability frequency magnetic fields.
EN61000-4-11. Immunity to harm from input business voltage reductions.
EN61000-3-2. Limits to the harmonic currents that tin live taken from the input line.
EN61000-3-3. Limits to the voltage fluctuations that the ability render tin drive to the business input voltage.
3) Performance Criteria:
In immunity testing, at that spot are 4 classes yesteryear which passing or failure are assessed.
Class A. No loss of business office or functioning due to the testing.
Class B. Temporary loss of business office or performance, self recoverable.
Class C. Loss of business office or functioning which needs intervention to restore.
Class D. Permanent loss of business office or functioning due to damage. This would ever correspond a failure.
Basic Emissions Standards
EN55022 (IT equipment), EN55011 (Industrial equipment), as well as FCC Class Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 or B (in the USA):
Conducted as well as radiated emission limits.
Conducted EMI (electromagnetic interference) is radio frequency unloosen energy that the ability render couples into the input ability lines. The ability render input incorporates filtering to trim down the conducted emissions every bit necessary. The radio frequency dissonance is measured betwixt 150kHz as well as xxx MHz using a spectrum analyzer or special receiver.
Radiated EMI is radio frequency unloosen energy emitted from the enclosure as well as input as well as output wiring of the ability render as well as is measured inward the 30MHz to 1,000MHz frequency range. The measure is usually performed at an “open” site which is an opened upwards air location selected to live inward a radio frequency placidity zone where television set as well as radio transmissions are weaker. The unit of measurement to live tested is placed on a wooden tabular array inward a higher house a large solid soil plane 10 meters away from a suitable receiving antenna connected to a spectrum analyzer.
EN61000-3-2
Puts limits on the harmonic currents that the ability render is allowed to have got from the air-conditioning mains source. The criterion applies to ability supplies amongst rated ability betwixt 75W as well as input business electrical flow of upwards to xvi amps per phase.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 ability render which is non ability constituent corrected volition have got a electrical flow from the origin which is non the same shape every bit the voltage waveform. This is because the input storage capacitors tin solely accuse when the input voltage is higher than the capacitor voltage. Thus the input electrical flow flows for solely part of the cycle, as well as has a high meridian value which causes currents which are harmonics of the business frequency. With iii stage ability distribution the absence of harmonic currents ensures that the neutral electrical flow is zero. This was non the example when large numbers of personal computers without ability constituent correction began to live used inward business office buildings, as well as the neutral wire would give notice out. Most ability supplies directly contain ability constituent correction circuitry to ensure that the harmonic currents are low.
EN6100-3-3
Limits voltage changes that the unit of measurement nether exam tin impose upon the input ability source. This is referred to every bit the flicker test.
Although this is non ordinarily a occupation amongst ability supplies, or then types of electrical equipment, specially inward procedure control, tin charge the ability origin at regular or semi-random intervals. This tin drive voltage changes that tin send on the brightness of electrical lighting as well as drive flicker. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 survey was performed to make upwards one's hear what rates of flicker were the nearly disturbing to human subjects, as well as a bend of maximum pct voltage variation at diverse frequencies was established. The nearly disturbing charge per unit of measurement was merely over 1,000 changes per minute, as well as the bend reflects the smallest pct alter at this frequency. Above 1,800 changes per infinitesimal the flicker is non noticed.
Basic Immunity Standards
EN61000-4-2
Tests immunity to electrostatic discharge from a imitation human trunk capacitance of 150pF. By walking across a rug of artificial fiber inward a depression humidity condition, a somebody tin construct upwards a accuse of several K volts. This tin live discharged to electrical/electronic equipment, as well as then it is of import that the equipment is immune to these discharges. The exam is performed at a voltage of upwards to 8kV yesteryear discharging a probe to the chassis at diverse locations yesteryear straight contact, as well as at upwards to 15kV through the air, amongst the ability render operating. Test levels of 4kV as well as 8kV are common. Class B functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-3
Checks immunity to incident radio frequency unloosen energy inward the frequency gain of 80MHz to 1,000MHz, as well as a split exam at 800 MHz to 960MHz to copy the resultant of digital Galvanic cell transmissions. The exam is performed inward an anechoic sleeping accommodation which is a shielded room amongst cone shaped plastic moldings on the within wall surfaces which absorb radio frequency energy, then at that spot are no echoes. The plain pull is 10V/m for the carrier. Class Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-4
Tests the resultant of a fast voltage transient or flare-up applied betwixt each input business as well as solid soil inward turn. The applied voltage has a meridian flat of 2kV, as well as rises to maximum inward five nanoseconds, as well as falls dorsum to zip inward fifty nanoseconds. It is applied at a repetition charge per unit of measurement of 5kHz. Class B functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-5
Simulates the resultant of a lightning surge voltage applied to the input ability lines. Surge voltages are applied betwixt each business as well as ground, as well as every bit good betwixt lines. The business to solid soil meridian voltage is ordinarily twice that applied from business to line. 4kV as well as 2kV are typical exam voltages. The voltage has a ascension fourth dimension of 1.2 microseconds, as well as a autumn fourth dimension of fifty microseconds. Class B functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-6
Tests the resultant of conducted radio frequency unloosen energy which is inductively coupled into the input cables amongst a solid soil return. The frequency gain is 150kHz to 80MHz at 10Vrms amplitude, as well as the frequency is increased inward 1% steps. The carrier is 80% aAmplitude modulated at 1 kHz. Class Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-8
Electromagnetic compatibility, testing as well as measure techniques for ability frequency magnetic fields. Criterion A, using Helmholtz scroll at fifty Hz, to xxx amps (rms) per meter.
EN6100-4-11
Checks the resultant of input voltage dips on A.C. input ability supplies only.
There are iii unlike degrees of exam severity, a 30% reduction of input voltage for 0.5 period, a 60% reduction for five periods as well as a 95% reduction for 250 periods. For the get-go test, the unit of measurement should hold working amongst no alter of output voltage because nearly units have got a hold-up fourth dimension of 1 period, which corresponds to xx milliseconds at 50Hz. The other 2 tests volition drive reduction or loss of output voltage, as well as intervention may live needed to restore the output. The unit of measurement should non live damaged yesteryear the testing. Class B as well as C functioning criteria apply.
EMC refers to ElectroMagnetic Compatibility. Electrical equipment that takes ability from a distributed air-conditioning or DC origin which is connected to other equipment, such every bit the air-conditioning mains inward a building, has to have got minimal influence on that source. It every bit good has to have got minimal influence on other equipment through electromagnetic radiation. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 ability converter which incorporates switching devices operating at high frequency needs to employ special agency to hold the electromagnetic interference within internationally agreed upon limits. In general, electrical equipment has to operate inward its surroundings amongst minimal disturbance to its environment. The limits to disturbances are defined yesteryear the international standards described below.
Types of Standards:
1) Generic Standards:
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 top flat criterion for a type of equipment which encompasses specific basic standards inward their references. The electrical flow relevant criterion for ability supplies is EN61204-3: 2000. This covers the EMC requirements for ability render units amongst DC output(s) of upwards to 200V, at ability levels upwards to 30kW, as well as operating from air-conditioning or DC. origin voltages of upwards to 600V. The EN refers to Euro Norm or European standard. Europe has led the plain inward establishing standards for EMC as well as many other areas which have got been adopted worldwide, amongst or then local deviations.
2) Basic Standards List:
The relevant basic standards called upwards inward EN61204-3 are:
EN55022 as well as EN55011. Conducted as well as radiated electromagnetic interference emitted yesteryear the ability supply. This is every bit good known every bit CISPR22. The FCC has like standards inward the USA. There are 2 levels for the emission limits, Class Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 as well as Class B. Class B is ordinarily required which puts a lower boundary on allowed emissions.
EN61000-4-2. Immunity to electrostatic discharge.
EN61000-4-3. Immunity to radiated radio frequencies.
EN61000-4-4. Immunity to fast transient voltages on the input lines.
EN61000-4-5. Immunity to lightning surges on the input lines.
EN61000-4-6. Immunity to conducted radio frequencies.
EN61000-4-8. Immunity to ability frequency magnetic fields.
EN61000-4-11. Immunity to harm from input business voltage reductions.
EN61000-3-2. Limits to the harmonic currents that tin live taken from the input line.
EN61000-3-3. Limits to the voltage fluctuations that the ability render tin drive to the business input voltage.
3) Performance Criteria:
In immunity testing, at that spot are 4 classes yesteryear which passing or failure are assessed.
Class A. No loss of business office or functioning due to the testing.
Class B. Temporary loss of business office or performance, self recoverable.
Class C. Loss of business office or functioning which needs intervention to restore.
Class D. Permanent loss of business office or functioning due to damage. This would ever correspond a failure.
Basic Emissions Standards
EN55022 (IT equipment), EN55011 (Industrial equipment), as well as FCC Class Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 or B (in the USA):
Conducted as well as radiated emission limits.
Conducted EMI (electromagnetic interference) is radio frequency unloosen energy that the ability render couples into the input ability lines. The ability render input incorporates filtering to trim down the conducted emissions every bit necessary. The radio frequency dissonance is measured betwixt 150kHz as well as xxx MHz using a spectrum analyzer or special receiver.
Radiated EMI is radio frequency unloosen energy emitted from the enclosure as well as input as well as output wiring of the ability render as well as is measured inward the 30MHz to 1,000MHz frequency range. The measure is usually performed at an “open” site which is an opened upwards air location selected to live inward a radio frequency placidity zone where television set as well as radio transmissions are weaker. The unit of measurement to live tested is placed on a wooden tabular array inward a higher house a large solid soil plane 10 meters away from a suitable receiving antenna connected to a spectrum analyzer.
EN61000-3-2
Puts limits on the harmonic currents that the ability render is allowed to have got from the air-conditioning mains source. The criterion applies to ability supplies amongst rated ability betwixt 75W as well as input business electrical flow of upwards to xvi amps per phase.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 ability render which is non ability constituent corrected volition have got a electrical flow from the origin which is non the same shape every bit the voltage waveform. This is because the input storage capacitors tin solely accuse when the input voltage is higher than the capacitor voltage. Thus the input electrical flow flows for solely part of the cycle, as well as has a high meridian value which causes currents which are harmonics of the business frequency. With iii stage ability distribution the absence of harmonic currents ensures that the neutral electrical flow is zero. This was non the example when large numbers of personal computers without ability constituent correction began to live used inward business office buildings, as well as the neutral wire would give notice out. Most ability supplies directly contain ability constituent correction circuitry to ensure that the harmonic currents are low.
EN6100-3-3
Limits voltage changes that the unit of measurement nether exam tin impose upon the input ability source. This is referred to every bit the flicker test.
Although this is non ordinarily a occupation amongst ability supplies, or then types of electrical equipment, specially inward procedure control, tin charge the ability origin at regular or semi-random intervals. This tin drive voltage changes that tin send on the brightness of electrical lighting as well as drive flicker. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 survey was performed to make upwards one's hear what rates of flicker were the nearly disturbing to human subjects, as well as a bend of maximum pct voltage variation at diverse frequencies was established. The nearly disturbing charge per unit of measurement was merely over 1,000 changes per minute, as well as the bend reflects the smallest pct alter at this frequency. Above 1,800 changes per infinitesimal the flicker is non noticed.
Basic Immunity Standards
EN61000-4-2
Tests immunity to electrostatic discharge from a imitation human trunk capacitance of 150pF. By walking across a rug of artificial fiber inward a depression humidity condition, a somebody tin construct upwards a accuse of several K volts. This tin live discharged to electrical/electronic equipment, as well as then it is of import that the equipment is immune to these discharges. The exam is performed at a voltage of upwards to 8kV yesteryear discharging a probe to the chassis at diverse locations yesteryear straight contact, as well as at upwards to 15kV through the air, amongst the ability render operating. Test levels of 4kV as well as 8kV are common. Class B functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-3
Checks immunity to incident radio frequency unloosen energy inward the frequency gain of 80MHz to 1,000MHz, as well as a split exam at 800 MHz to 960MHz to copy the resultant of digital Galvanic cell transmissions. The exam is performed inward an anechoic sleeping accommodation which is a shielded room amongst cone shaped plastic moldings on the within wall surfaces which absorb radio frequency energy, then at that spot are no echoes. The plain pull is 10V/m for the carrier. Class Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-4
Tests the resultant of a fast voltage transient or flare-up applied betwixt each input business as well as solid soil inward turn. The applied voltage has a meridian flat of 2kV, as well as rises to maximum inward five nanoseconds, as well as falls dorsum to zip inward fifty nanoseconds. It is applied at a repetition charge per unit of measurement of 5kHz. Class B functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-5
Simulates the resultant of a lightning surge voltage applied to the input ability lines. Surge voltages are applied betwixt each business as well as ground, as well as every bit good betwixt lines. The business to solid soil meridian voltage is ordinarily twice that applied from business to line. 4kV as well as 2kV are typical exam voltages. The voltage has a ascension fourth dimension of 1.2 microseconds, as well as a autumn fourth dimension of fifty microseconds. Class B functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-6
Tests the resultant of conducted radio frequency unloosen energy which is inductively coupled into the input cables amongst a solid soil return. The frequency gain is 150kHz to 80MHz at 10Vrms amplitude, as well as the frequency is increased inward 1% steps. The carrier is 80% aAmplitude modulated at 1 kHz. Class Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 functioning criterion applies.
EN61000-4-8
Electromagnetic compatibility, testing as well as measure techniques for ability frequency magnetic fields. Criterion A, using Helmholtz scroll at fifty Hz, to xxx amps (rms) per meter.
EN6100-4-11
Checks the resultant of input voltage dips on A.C. input ability supplies only.
There are iii unlike degrees of exam severity, a 30% reduction of input voltage for 0.5 period, a 60% reduction for five periods as well as a 95% reduction for 250 periods. For the get-go test, the unit of measurement should hold working amongst no alter of output voltage because nearly units have got a hold-up fourth dimension of 1 period, which corresponds to xx milliseconds at 50Hz. The other 2 tests volition drive reduction or loss of output voltage, as well as intervention may live needed to restore the output. The unit of measurement should non live damaged yesteryear the testing. Class B as well as C functioning criteria apply.
Info!! What Are The Differences Betwixt Conduction, Convection In Addition To Radiant Cooling Of Ability Devices?
All ability devices generate heat. This is due to the unavoidable internal losses of all ability circuits due to their inefficiencies. The higher the efficiency rating of the ability device, the less internal estrus is generated inside it. If nosotros could attain 100% efficiency, at that spot would hold upwards no estrus generated inside the ability device as well as no cooling required.
There are 3 methods of transferring or removing estrus from ability devices: These are conduction, convection and radiant. In all cases, the estrus is existence transferred from the ability device to some other medium that is at a lower temperature. Heat is constantly seeking to motion to whatever object or medium that is cooler.
Conduction Cooling: This is defined equally the transfer of estrus from i hot business office to some other cooler business office yesteryear take away contact. For example, many DC-DC converters make got a apartment surface that is designed to mountain straight to an external estrus sink or mutual frigidity plate that volition deport the estrus away from the ability device yesteryear take away contact, thereby cooling it. Conduction is the virtually widely used method of estrus transfer. All ability supplies purpose internal heatsinks to aid deport the estrus away from the hot devices.
Convection Cooling: This involves the transfer of estrus from a ability device yesteryear the activeness of the natural air catamenia (a depression density fluid) surrounding as well as contacting the device. Many ability devices are rated for natural convection cooling equally long equally the air surrounding the unit of measurement remains inside a express temperature hit that is cooler than the device. The payoff of this method of cooling is that no electromechanical fans are required.
Another type of convection cooling requires forced-air-flow via fans or blowers across the ability device. Many ability supplies come upwards alongside a build-in fan to provide this forced air type of convection cooling. Other types of ability supplies specify the sum of air catamenia that must popular off through or but about the device (in cubic-feet-per-minute) inwards gild for the render to provide its maximum rated output power.
Some ability devices alongside estrus sinks depend on convection cooling (with or without forced air) to assistance inwards transferring the estrus away from the ability devices to the cooler air.
Radiant Cooling: This is the transfer of estrus yesteryear way of electromagnetic radiations (energy waves) that catamenia from a hot object (power device) to a cooler object. True radiant estrus transfer tin dismiss accept house inwards a vacuum as well as does non bespeak air. It should hold upwards noted that conduction cooled ability devices likewise hand off radiant heat; however, radiant estrus transfer is less effective equally a way to cool a ability device than are conduction or convection cooling described above.
There are 3 methods of transferring or removing estrus from ability devices: These are conduction, convection and radiant. In all cases, the estrus is existence transferred from the ability device to some other medium that is at a lower temperature. Heat is constantly seeking to motion to whatever object or medium that is cooler.
Conduction Cooling: This is defined equally the transfer of estrus from i hot business office to some other cooler business office yesteryear take away contact. For example, many DC-DC converters make got a apartment surface that is designed to mountain straight to an external estrus sink or mutual frigidity plate that volition deport the estrus away from the ability device yesteryear take away contact, thereby cooling it. Conduction is the virtually widely used method of estrus transfer. All ability supplies purpose internal heatsinks to aid deport the estrus away from the hot devices.
Convection Cooling: This involves the transfer of estrus from a ability device yesteryear the activeness of the natural air catamenia (a depression density fluid) surrounding as well as contacting the device. Many ability devices are rated for natural convection cooling equally long equally the air surrounding the unit of measurement remains inside a express temperature hit that is cooler than the device. The payoff of this method of cooling is that no electromechanical fans are required.
Another type of convection cooling requires forced-air-flow via fans or blowers across the ability device. Many ability supplies come upwards alongside a build-in fan to provide this forced air type of convection cooling. Other types of ability supplies specify the sum of air catamenia that must popular off through or but about the device (in cubic-feet-per-minute) inwards gild for the render to provide its maximum rated output power.
Some ability devices alongside estrus sinks depend on convection cooling (with or without forced air) to assistance inwards transferring the estrus away from the ability devices to the cooler air.
Radiant Cooling: This is the transfer of estrus yesteryear way of electromagnetic radiations (energy waves) that catamenia from a hot object (power device) to a cooler object. True radiant estrus transfer tin dismiss accept house inwards a vacuum as well as does non bespeak air. It should hold upwards noted that conduction cooled ability devices likewise hand off radiant heat; however, radiant estrus transfer is less effective equally a way to cool a ability device than are conduction or convection cooling described above.
Info!! What Create They Hateful Past Times Output Ability Derating?
All might supplies get got a specified “Operating Temperature Range”. For example, TDK-Lambda’s AC-DC switch-mode SWS600L serial of 600 watt, unmarried output might supplies get got an operating temperature attain from “-20°C to +74°C”. However, the spec too states: “…derating linearly to 50% charge higher upward 50°C”. What does this mean?
Please shout out to Figure 1 below. Most might provide manufacturers provide this type of bend to larn far easier for the destination user to create upward one's heed the maximum output might that tin provided past times a might provide at diverse operating or ambient temperatures. Ta = Temperature of the Ambient Air, or, the temperature of the air surrounding the might supply, particularly the air at the intake of a fan-cooled supply. By comparison the “Operating Temperature Range” specification listed higher upward to the derating curve, the next data tin hold out seen:
In add-on to the supply’s normal “operating temperature range” as well as output derating-curve, unopen to supplies similar this one, get got a specified low-temperature “start-up” capability (i.e., -40°C). This agency that the provide tin “start-up” or hold out “turned-on” amongst an ambient temperature every bit depression every bit -40°C (below the -20°C spec) as well as deliver 100% of its rated power, however, the supply’s output regulation, hold-up time, ripple & noise, as well as other specifications cannot hold out fully guaranteed until the provide warms upward to at to the lowest degree -20°C. This mutual depression temperature temperature start-up is a prissy characteristic to have, particularly for outdoor-mounted applications. Once the provide is turned-on it volition ordinarily self-heat due to the estrus generated past times its internal electronic might components.
Please shout out to Figure 1 below. Most might provide manufacturers provide this type of bend to larn far easier for the destination user to create upward one's heed the maximum output might that tin provided past times a might provide at diverse operating or ambient temperatures. Ta = Temperature of the Ambient Air, or, the temperature of the air surrounding the might supply, particularly the air at the intake of a fan-cooled supply. By comparison the “Operating Temperature Range” specification listed higher upward to the derating curve, the next data tin hold out seen:
- The provide tin deliver 100% of its rated output might charge (600 watts) from -20°C to +50°C ambient temperatures
- Above 50°C ambient, the provide tin deliver a reduced total of power
- At 60°C ambient, the provide tin provide nearly 80% of its max. rated might (0.80 x 600 = 480 watts)
- At 74°C ambient, the provide tin provide 50% of its max. rated might charge (0.50 x 600 = 300 watts)
Figure 1: SWS600L Output Power Derating Curve
In add-on to the supply’s normal “operating temperature range” as well as output derating-curve, unopen to supplies similar this one, get got a specified low-temperature “start-up” capability (i.e., -40°C). This agency that the provide tin “start-up” or hold out “turned-on” amongst an ambient temperature every bit depression every bit -40°C (below the -20°C spec) as well as deliver 100% of its rated power, however, the supply’s output regulation, hold-up time, ripple & noise, as well as other specifications cannot hold out fully guaranteed until the provide warms upward to at to the lowest degree -20°C. This mutual depression temperature temperature start-up is a prissy characteristic to have, particularly for outdoor-mounted applications. Once the provide is turned-on it volition ordinarily self-heat due to the estrus generated past times its internal electronic might components.
Info!! What Does 1U, 2U Or 3U Mean?
Many rack-mounted ability systems are specified every bit existence 1U, 2U, 3U, etc. What does this mean? For electronic equipment racks (e.g., xix or 23 inches wide), the term 1U is used to define 1 rack unit of measurement of height.
1U equals 1.75-inches (44.45mm) of rack height. Therefore, a 2U rack mountain tiptop would endure ii x 1.75", which equals 3.5-inches high. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 3U tiptop would endure three x 1.75" = 5.25-inches.
It should endure noted that the 1U, 2U, 3U, etc., heights are maximum dimensions. In social club to permit for mechanical tolerances too to provide but about infinite betwixt panels, typically, for each 1U of tiptop manufacturers may deduct nearly 0.03" (see Photo #1). For example, a 2U panel, which has a nominal tiptop of 3.50" may endure solely 3.44" high [3.50" – (2 x 0.03") = 3.44"].
Individual ability supplies are sometimes mounted inside rack-mounted enclosures that require integral power. In these cases, the ability provide needs to endure a fleck shorter than the equipment’s overall tiptop to permit for the overstep too bottom covers. So a 1U high enclosure-mountable ability provide needs to endure shorter than 1.75-inches; a 2U enclosure-mountable provide needs to endure shorter than 3.5-inches, too then forth (see Photo #2).
Examples
Photo #1: This 19" rack-mountable ability organisation tin concord upwards to three plug-in, hot-swap too redundant ability supplies. The enclosure amongst mounting ears is 1.72" high (= 1.75" minus 0.03") too is thus considered 1U high.
Photo #2: This 1000-watt switch-mode ability provide is 3.25” high and, therefore, tin endure mounted inward a 2U rack-mountable enclosure, which tin vary betwixt 3.44" to 3.50" high.
Since nosotros nevertheless alive inward an English linguistic communication too Metric criterion world, hither are a twain of handy conversion factors: 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters (mm), 1 mm = 0.03937 inch
As a side note, Lambda ran a clever advertizing drive that those who sympathise what “1U” or “2U” actually way would appreciate. Here is a re-create of that ad, which hopefully yous volition uncovering humorous.
1U equals 1.75-inches (44.45mm) of rack height. Therefore, a 2U rack mountain tiptop would endure ii x 1.75", which equals 3.5-inches high. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 3U tiptop would endure three x 1.75" = 5.25-inches.
It should endure noted that the 1U, 2U, 3U, etc., heights are maximum dimensions. In social club to permit for mechanical tolerances too to provide but about infinite betwixt panels, typically, for each 1U of tiptop manufacturers may deduct nearly 0.03" (see Photo #1). For example, a 2U panel, which has a nominal tiptop of 3.50" may endure solely 3.44" high [3.50" – (2 x 0.03") = 3.44"].
Individual ability supplies are sometimes mounted inside rack-mounted enclosures that require integral power. In these cases, the ability provide needs to endure a fleck shorter than the equipment’s overall tiptop to permit for the overstep too bottom covers. So a 1U high enclosure-mountable ability provide needs to endure shorter than 1.75-inches; a 2U enclosure-mountable provide needs to endure shorter than 3.5-inches, too then forth (see Photo #2).
Examples
Photo #1: This 19" rack-mountable ability organisation tin concord upwards to three plug-in, hot-swap too redundant ability supplies. The enclosure amongst mounting ears is 1.72" high (= 1.75" minus 0.03") too is thus considered 1U high.Photo #2: This 1000-watt switch-mode ability provide is 3.25” high and, therefore, tin endure mounted inward a 2U rack-mountable enclosure, which tin vary betwixt 3.44" to 3.50" high.Since nosotros nevertheless alive inward an English linguistic communication too Metric criterion world, hither are a twain of handy conversion factors: 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters (mm), 1 mm = 0.03937 inch
As a side note, Lambda ran a clever advertizing drive that those who sympathise what “1U” or “2U” actually way would appreciate. Here is a re-create of that ad, which hopefully yous volition uncovering humorous.
Info!! What Is Pfc In Addition To Why Produce Ane Necessitate It?
Switchmode might supplies without Power Factor Correction (PFC) tend to describe the air conditioning input electrical flow inward curt bursts or spikes relative to the work voltage, every bit shown inward Fig. 1. The Power Factor of a might render is technically the ratio of the existent might consumed to the apparent might (Voltsrms x Ampsrms) in addition to is a decimal betwixt 0 in addition to 1.0. If left uncorrected the Power Factor (PF) of switchmode supplies volition to a greater extent than oftentimes than non hold upwards unopen to 0.65 or less.
The Power Factor tin hold upwards improved yesteryear using PFC circuits. These circuits “smooth out” the pulsating air conditioning current, improving the PF, in addition to reducing the chances of a circuit breaker tripping prematurely. There are ii basic types of PFC, passive in addition to active. Passive PFC circuits are less expensive in addition to typically tin right the PF to nigh 0.85. Active PFC circuits are the most popular, are built into the switchmode might render in addition to tin increment the PF to 0.98 or higher. The closer the PF comes to beingness 1.0, the improve the functioning of the might supply. Ideally, nosotros desire to halt upwards alongside the input voltage in addition to electrical flow waveforms beingness sinusoidal in addition to inward stage alongside each other every bit shown inward Fig. 2.
Figure 2. Voltage in addition to Current waveforms are sinusoidal in addition to in-phase. PF=1.
PFC is Required yesteryear International Regulations
An of import argue to accept PFC inward your might render is to comply alongside international regulations, specially if y'all intend to sell your equipment inward Europe. Since 2001, the European Union (EU) established limits on harmonic currents that tin look on the mains (AC line) of switchmode might supplies. Today, the most of import rule is the “European Norm” EN61000-3-2. This rule applies to might supplies alongside input might of 75 watts or greater, in addition to that trace upwards to sixteen amps off the mains. It sets severe limits on the harmonic currents upwards to the 39th, when measured at the input of switchmode might supplies.
For example, the offset harmonic is the primary input frequency, typically l Hz for the European Union countries. The 3rd harmonic is 150 Hz, in addition to the 39th harmonic is 1,950 Hz. These unwanted harmonic currents accept a straight human relationship to the Power Factor of switchmode might supplies. Therefore, might supplies that encounter EN61000-3-2 inherently accept high might factors that are typically 0.97 or higher.
PFC Increases the Supply’s Output Power Capability
The PF, much similar the supply’s efficiency rating, determines the amount of useful might a switchmode might render tin describe from the air conditioning work in addition to and then deliver to its output load. Specifically, the formula that determines this is:
As an example, if a might render is operating off of 120VAC line, which is protected yesteryear 15A circuit breaker, UL guidelines state y'all should non describe to a greater extent than than 12A. So, using the formula above, nosotros tin compare ii might render examples alongside dissimilar Power Factors, every bit follows:
Example A: No PFC, PF = 0.65, 85% Efficiency, 120VAC input, 12A max. current:
Therefore: 120VAC x 12A x 0.65 x 0.85 = 796 Watts Output Power
Example B: PFC used, PF=0.98, 85% Efficiency, 120VAC input, 12A max. current:
Therefore: 120VAC x 12A x 0.98 x 0.85 = 1200 Watts Output Power
As tin hold upwards seen above, the might render inward Example B (with PFC) tin deliver 404 Watts or 51% to a greater extent than might to its output charge than the non-PFC supply, a pregnant increase.
Why produce I necessitate PFC?
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 might render alongside PFC tin render higher output charge currents than those without PFC. PFC significantly reduces the air conditioning electrical flow harmonics, leaving mainly the “fundamental” electrical flow frequency that is in-phase alongside the voltage waveform (Fig. 2). International regulations dictate the substantial reduction of harmonic currents. The vast bulk of AC-DC might supplies manufactured yesteryear Lambda Americas has active PFC, is inward accordance alongside EN61000-3-2 in addition to provides typical might factors inward the make of 0.97 to 0.99.
Figure 1. Input of switchmode might supplies without PFC. The voltage waveform is a sinewave in addition to the electrical flow waveform is a pulse or spike. PF<1 span="">
The Power Factor tin hold upwards improved yesteryear using PFC circuits. These circuits “smooth out” the pulsating air conditioning current, improving the PF, in addition to reducing the chances of a circuit breaker tripping prematurely. There are ii basic types of PFC, passive in addition to active. Passive PFC circuits are less expensive in addition to typically tin right the PF to nigh 0.85. Active PFC circuits are the most popular, are built into the switchmode might render in addition to tin increment the PF to 0.98 or higher. The closer the PF comes to beingness 1.0, the improve the functioning of the might supply. Ideally, nosotros desire to halt upwards alongside the input voltage in addition to electrical flow waveforms beingness sinusoidal in addition to inward stage alongside each other every bit shown inward Fig. 2.
Figure 2. Voltage in addition to Current waveforms are sinusoidal in addition to in-phase. PF=1.PFC is Required yesteryear International Regulations
An of import argue to accept PFC inward your might render is to comply alongside international regulations, specially if y'all intend to sell your equipment inward Europe. Since 2001, the European Union (EU) established limits on harmonic currents that tin look on the mains (AC line) of switchmode might supplies. Today, the most of import rule is the “European Norm” EN61000-3-2. This rule applies to might supplies alongside input might of 75 watts or greater, in addition to that trace upwards to sixteen amps off the mains. It sets severe limits on the harmonic currents upwards to the 39th, when measured at the input of switchmode might supplies.
For example, the offset harmonic is the primary input frequency, typically l Hz for the European Union countries. The 3rd harmonic is 150 Hz, in addition to the 39th harmonic is 1,950 Hz. These unwanted harmonic currents accept a straight human relationship to the Power Factor of switchmode might supplies. Therefore, might supplies that encounter EN61000-3-2 inherently accept high might factors that are typically 0.97 or higher.
PFC Increases the Supply’s Output Power Capability
The PF, much similar the supply’s efficiency rating, determines the amount of useful might a switchmode might render tin describe from the air conditioning work in addition to and then deliver to its output load. Specifically, the formula that determines this is:
VLrms x ILrms x PF x Eff = Pout
As an example, if a might render is operating off of 120VAC line, which is protected yesteryear 15A circuit breaker, UL guidelines state y'all should non describe to a greater extent than than 12A. So, using the formula above, nosotros tin compare ii might render examples alongside dissimilar Power Factors, every bit follows:
Example A: No PFC, PF = 0.65, 85% Efficiency, 120VAC input, 12A max. current:
Therefore: 120VAC x 12A x 0.65 x 0.85 = 796 Watts Output Power
Example B: PFC used, PF=0.98, 85% Efficiency, 120VAC input, 12A max. current:
Therefore: 120VAC x 12A x 0.98 x 0.85 = 1200 Watts Output Power
As tin hold upwards seen above, the might render inward Example B (with PFC) tin deliver 404 Watts or 51% to a greater extent than might to its output charge than the non-PFC supply, a pregnant increase.
Why produce I necessitate PFC?
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 might render alongside PFC tin render higher output charge currents than those without PFC. PFC significantly reduces the air conditioning electrical flow harmonics, leaving mainly the “fundamental” electrical flow frequency that is in-phase alongside the voltage waveform (Fig. 2). International regulations dictate the substantial reduction of harmonic currents. The vast bulk of AC-DC might supplies manufactured yesteryear Lambda Americas has active PFC, is inward accordance alongside EN61000-3-2 in addition to provides typical might factors inward the make of 0.97 to 0.99.
Info!! Droop Vogue Electrical Flow Share
If 2 ability supplies are to endure connected together to create to a greater extent than ability or part the load, in addition to then a parallel capable model should endure selected. TDK-Lambda’s DPP100, 120, 240 in addition to 480 models are all parallel capable. On the front end of each ability render is a small-scale dark switch. For parallel functioning this switch should endure laid upwards to “parallel” (Fig. 1).
In unmarried trend the charge rule (the total the output voltages changes amongst load) is minimal, the deviation beingness less than 0.24V from nada charge to total charge for a 24V output ability supply.
In parallel trend that charge rule is artificially increased to 1.2V using internal circuitry (Fig. 2).
The extra voltage drib or “droop” is proportional to the charge drawn, therefore that when 2 or to a greater extent than ability supplies are connected inwards parallel the output charge is shared betwixt the ability supplies. If 1 of the paralleled ability supplies tries to provide to a greater extent than current, its output volition droop slightly in addition to the other supplies volition balance.
For optimal performance, all ability supplies should accept their outputs laid upwards to the same voltage.
In unmarried trend the charge rule (the total the output voltages changes amongst load) is minimal, the deviation beingness less than 0.24V from nada charge to total charge for a 24V output ability supply.
In parallel trend that charge rule is artificially increased to 1.2V using internal circuitry (Fig. 2).
The extra voltage drib or “droop” is proportional to the charge drawn, therefore that when 2 or to a greater extent than ability supplies are connected inwards parallel the output charge is shared betwixt the ability supplies. If 1 of the paralleled ability supplies tries to provide to a greater extent than current, its output volition droop slightly in addition to the other supplies volition balance.
For optimal performance, all ability supplies should accept their outputs laid upwards to the same voltage.
Info!! Benefits Of Environmentally Friendly Ability Supplies
Increasingly, Lambda’s customers are quest for too receiving Environmentally Friendly (EF) or “Green” ability supplies. What constitutes an EF/Green ability supply? There are a release of factors which contribute to a ability render beingness considered EF/Green. These include: RoHS compliance, electrical dissonance (EMI) suppression, high efficiency too ability factor correction (PFC).
RoHS Compliance: Lead, mercury too other “hazardous” elements too chemicals used inwards the production of electronic devices bring been identified, too by-law (since July 2006), bring been banned or severely express to their content inwards these devices, past times the European Union (EU). These limitations are spelled out inwards what is called the RoHS Directives (Restriction of Hazardous Substances). Currently, all products sold to the countries inside the European Union must comply amongst the RoHS Directives. Many of U.S.A. hither inwards America bring adopted like restrictions. Lambda has been a leader inwards providing RoHS-compliant ability supplies fifty-fifty to their U.S.A. customers who may non currently require them. This represents Lambda’s dedication to making the the world a greener too cleaner house to live. Over 99% of Lambda’s ability products are RoHS-compliant amongst a few exceptions beingness for those industries that are RoHS-exempt such equally specific armed services applications.
EMI Suppression: All electrical devices contribute inwards some agency to the electrical dissonance that “pollutes” our ability lines too airways inwards the flat of unwanted dissonance spikes too radio interference. These unwanted dissonance generators are restricted to the amount of EMI (Electro-Magnetic Interference) they are allowed to emit past times strict standards that are produced too maintained past times the FCC too international organizations (e.g., IEC, EN). Power supplies are amid the electrical devices that bring an inherent electrical dissonance occupation (both conducted too radiated) which must travel addressed past times the ability render designer too manufacturer. Without properly designed internal EMI filters too RF shielding, ability supplies would piece of work huge polluters of our electrical too electronic environment. Lambda ability supplies comply amongst the close rigorous EMI suppression standards. For example, the really restrictive FCC Class-B EMI compliance is available, equally standard, on many Lambda ability supplies.
High Efficiency: The efficiency rating of a ability render is measured past times comparison the AC ability going into the ability render divided past times the DC ability coming out of the supply. For example, if 100 watts of AC ability is used past times a ability render for it to provide ninety watt of DC output power, the efficiency of the render is calculated past times dividing 90W past times 100W, which equals 0.90 or 90% efficiency. When comparison a 75% to a 90% efficient ability supply, the savings inwards electricity usage too wasted loose energy (in the flat of heat) is quite significant.
Power Factor Correction (PFC): Modern switchmode ability supplies should include active Power Factor Correction circuits inwards companionship to maximize the AC ability that is used past times the supply. The Power Factor of a ability render is technically the ratio of the existent ability consumed to the apparent ability (Volts-rms x Amps-rms) too is a decimal release betwixt 0 too 1.0. If left uncorrected the Power Factor (PF) of switchmode supplies volition to a greater extent than frequently than non travel some 0.65 or less. With active PFC, switchmode ability supplies tin dismiss arrive at ability factors from 0.96 to 0.99. Without PFC, switchmode supplies would describe their AC occupation electrical flow inwards the flat of spikes or pulses, instead equally a build clean sinewave; the cyberspace termination beingness that the AC ability wires, circuit breakers too ability generating plants demand to travel sized larger than if they are driving products that comprise PFC ability supplies.
So what does High Efficiency too PFC hateful relative to beingness Environmentally Friendly?
Most electricity used inside the USA is generated past times burning fossil fuels such equally oil, natural gas or coal. It has been shown that in that place is a green-house-effect that is increasing at an alarming charge per unit of measurement due to the large amount of carbon dioxide that ability generation plants produce. So, whenever nosotros tin dismiss trim down the amount of electricity used, nosotros are contributing to a cleaner environment, a reduction of CO2 inwards the atmosphere too our dependence on, too the shipping costs of unusual crude from the OPEC countries (the crude tankers burn downwards diesel fuel, which farther adds to the pollution).
In addition, in that place tin dismiss travel meaning coin savings to the ability render user. Basically the savings of only 1-watt dissipated inwards the ability render = 365 days x 24 hrs x 1W = 8.76kW/hrs per year. If electricity costs $0.30 per kW/hr, that would amount to $2.63/year per each watt saved. If nosotros boost the efficiency of a ability render past times alone 5% on a 150W unit of measurement from 85% to 90%, that saves 7.5W [(150W x 0.15 = 22.5W) - (150 x 0.10 = 15W) = 7.5W]. That translates to $19.73 per twelvemonth savings (7.5W x $2.63/year = $19.73/year), which is to a greater extent than than the buy toll of the ability render over its typical lifespan (4 to v years), plus, nosotros bring reduced the amount of carbon dioxide inwards the air. If nosotros reckon an OEM who uses a 90% efficient ability render (instead of 85%) inwards their destination production too produces 100,000 units/year, the “total electrical ability savings” would amount to 100,000 units x 7.5W = 750,000 watts per hour, a meaning ability savings.
Furthermore, the higher the efficiency of the ability supply, the less ability is wasted inwards the render too the less loose energy is needed to withdraw that wasted loose energy (in the flat of heat), past times cooling the render or the room inwards which the equipment is used (via role of electromechanical fans, blowers, air conditioning, etc). The combination of high efficiency too PFC inwards ability supplies allows the role of smaller guess ability distribution wires, lower-rated circuit breakers too fewer ability generating plants (air polluters).
Lambda’s HWS Series, 1000-Watt Switchmode Power Supply is fully RoHS-Compliant, Meets FCC Class B EMI, has integral active PFC (Power Factor =0.98) too has a typical operating Efficiency of 88%.
In Summary: As mentioned above, in that place are many factors that comprise an “environmentally friendly/green” ability supply. And, the benefits to the end-user are significant. Lambda is a leader inwards the provision of these advanced ability devices too our international presence insures that nosotros volition piece of work on to travel at the forefront of these “Green & Clean” ability products.
RoHS Compliance: Lead, mercury too other “hazardous” elements too chemicals used inwards the production of electronic devices bring been identified, too by-law (since July 2006), bring been banned or severely express to their content inwards these devices, past times the European Union (EU). These limitations are spelled out inwards what is called the RoHS Directives (Restriction of Hazardous Substances). Currently, all products sold to the countries inside the European Union must comply amongst the RoHS Directives. Many of U.S.A. hither inwards America bring adopted like restrictions. Lambda has been a leader inwards providing RoHS-compliant ability supplies fifty-fifty to their U.S.A. customers who may non currently require them. This represents Lambda’s dedication to making the the world a greener too cleaner house to live. Over 99% of Lambda’s ability products are RoHS-compliant amongst a few exceptions beingness for those industries that are RoHS-exempt such equally specific armed services applications.
EMI Suppression: All electrical devices contribute inwards some agency to the electrical dissonance that “pollutes” our ability lines too airways inwards the flat of unwanted dissonance spikes too radio interference. These unwanted dissonance generators are restricted to the amount of EMI (Electro-Magnetic Interference) they are allowed to emit past times strict standards that are produced too maintained past times the FCC too international organizations (e.g., IEC, EN). Power supplies are amid the electrical devices that bring an inherent electrical dissonance occupation (both conducted too radiated) which must travel addressed past times the ability render designer too manufacturer. Without properly designed internal EMI filters too RF shielding, ability supplies would piece of work huge polluters of our electrical too electronic environment. Lambda ability supplies comply amongst the close rigorous EMI suppression standards. For example, the really restrictive FCC Class-B EMI compliance is available, equally standard, on many Lambda ability supplies.
High Efficiency: The efficiency rating of a ability render is measured past times comparison the AC ability going into the ability render divided past times the DC ability coming out of the supply. For example, if 100 watts of AC ability is used past times a ability render for it to provide ninety watt of DC output power, the efficiency of the render is calculated past times dividing 90W past times 100W, which equals 0.90 or 90% efficiency. When comparison a 75% to a 90% efficient ability supply, the savings inwards electricity usage too wasted loose energy (in the flat of heat) is quite significant.
Power Factor Correction (PFC): Modern switchmode ability supplies should include active Power Factor Correction circuits inwards companionship to maximize the AC ability that is used past times the supply. The Power Factor of a ability render is technically the ratio of the existent ability consumed to the apparent ability (Volts-rms x Amps-rms) too is a decimal release betwixt 0 too 1.0. If left uncorrected the Power Factor (PF) of switchmode supplies volition to a greater extent than frequently than non travel some 0.65 or less. With active PFC, switchmode ability supplies tin dismiss arrive at ability factors from 0.96 to 0.99. Without PFC, switchmode supplies would describe their AC occupation electrical flow inwards the flat of spikes or pulses, instead equally a build clean sinewave; the cyberspace termination beingness that the AC ability wires, circuit breakers too ability generating plants demand to travel sized larger than if they are driving products that comprise PFC ability supplies.
So what does High Efficiency too PFC hateful relative to beingness Environmentally Friendly?
Most electricity used inside the USA is generated past times burning fossil fuels such equally oil, natural gas or coal. It has been shown that in that place is a green-house-effect that is increasing at an alarming charge per unit of measurement due to the large amount of carbon dioxide that ability generation plants produce. So, whenever nosotros tin dismiss trim down the amount of electricity used, nosotros are contributing to a cleaner environment, a reduction of CO2 inwards the atmosphere too our dependence on, too the shipping costs of unusual crude from the OPEC countries (the crude tankers burn downwards diesel fuel, which farther adds to the pollution).
In addition, in that place tin dismiss travel meaning coin savings to the ability render user. Basically the savings of only 1-watt dissipated inwards the ability render = 365 days x 24 hrs x 1W = 8.76kW/hrs per year. If electricity costs $0.30 per kW/hr, that would amount to $2.63/year per each watt saved. If nosotros boost the efficiency of a ability render past times alone 5% on a 150W unit of measurement from 85% to 90%, that saves 7.5W [(150W x 0.15 = 22.5W) - (150 x 0.10 = 15W) = 7.5W]. That translates to $19.73 per twelvemonth savings (7.5W x $2.63/year = $19.73/year), which is to a greater extent than than the buy toll of the ability render over its typical lifespan (4 to v years), plus, nosotros bring reduced the amount of carbon dioxide inwards the air. If nosotros reckon an OEM who uses a 90% efficient ability render (instead of 85%) inwards their destination production too produces 100,000 units/year, the “total electrical ability savings” would amount to 100,000 units x 7.5W = 750,000 watts per hour, a meaning ability savings.
Furthermore, the higher the efficiency of the ability supply, the less ability is wasted inwards the render too the less loose energy is needed to withdraw that wasted loose energy (in the flat of heat), past times cooling the render or the room inwards which the equipment is used (via role of electromechanical fans, blowers, air conditioning, etc). The combination of high efficiency too PFC inwards ability supplies allows the role of smaller guess ability distribution wires, lower-rated circuit breakers too fewer ability generating plants (air polluters).
Lambda’s HWS Series, 1000-Watt Switchmode Power Supply is fully RoHS-Compliant, Meets FCC Class B EMI, has integral active PFC (Power Factor =0.98) too has a typical operating Efficiency of 88%. In Summary: As mentioned above, in that place are many factors that comprise an “environmentally friendly/green” ability supply. And, the benefits to the end-user are significant. Lambda is a leader inwards the provision of these advanced ability devices too our international presence insures that nosotros volition piece of work on to travel at the forefront of these “Green & Clean” ability products.
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